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LONGMANS CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION

LONGMANS'
CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES

Edited by the Author of " Notes on Building Construction "

With Illustrations, Medium &vo.

TIDAL RIVERS : their Hydraulics, Improvement, and
Navigation.

By W. H. Wheeler, M.Inst.C.E. Author of "The Drainage of Fens
and Low Lands by Gravitation and Steam Power." io>. net.

NOTES ON DOCKS AND DOCK CONSTRUCTION.

By C. Colson, M.Inst.C.E., Assistant Director of Works, Admiralty.
211. net.

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF HARBOUR CON-
STRUCTION.

By William Shield, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E., and Executive Engineer of
the National Harbour of Refuge, Peterhead, N.B. \$s. net.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

ByW. H.Mills, M.Inst.CE., Past President of the Institution of Civil
Engineers of Ireland, and Engineer-in-Chief of the Great Northern Railway of
Ireland.

CALCULATIONS FOR ENGINEERING STRUCTURES.

By T. Claxton Fidler, M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
University of Dundee. Author of "A Practical Treatise on Bridge Con-
struction. [In preparation.

A COURSE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING.

By L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering at University College, London. Author of " Rivers and Canals,"
" Harbours and Docks," " Achievements in Engineering." \In preparation.

Other Volumes are in preparation.
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

LONDON, NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

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LONGMANS' CIVIL E NGINEERING SERIES

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION

WILLIAM HEMINGWAY MILLS, M.Inst.CE

;t president of the institution op civil engineers of Ireland, and
railway of ireland

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

LONGMANS. GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

1898

All rifUl ratratd

PREFACE

The construction and maintenance of a railway calls for the
application of so many branches of engineering that several
volumes would be required to do ample justice to a subject so
comprehensive and ever-extending. To avoid attempting so
wide a range, the object of the following pages has been to
describe briefly some of the recognized leading features which
regulate railway construction, and to assist the explanation with
sketches of works selected from actual practice.

Where the number of existing good examples is legion, it is
somewhat difficult to make a choice for illustration, and the
course adopted has been to select such samples of structures as
appear best to elucidate in a simple manner the different types
of work under consideration.

In the drawings and diagrams many important minor
details are necessarily omitted, partly to avoid complexity, but
principally to leave more prominent the leading features of the
particular piece of work referred to in the description. Some of
the sketches of the large span bridges and large span roofs are
only shown in outline ; but, as their principal dimensions are
given, a general idea can be obtained of their actual proportions.

No allusion is made to the requisite strengths of the various
structures described, nor to the necessary dimensions of the
materials used in their construction, as this would necessitate
the introduction of a vast amount of mathematical formulae
which does not come under the province of the object in view,
and which the engineer has already at command from his train-
ing and works of reference.

Neither is any mention made as to the probable cost of the

vi PREFACE.

different works of construction, as these must always vary to a
very large extent, according to the locality, facility of supply,
and current prices of materials.

Every railway scheme which is the outcome of public enter-
prise has its commercial aspect and influence. The large sums
to be invested in its construction are expected to yield perma-
nent and increasing returns, and this desirable end can only be
attained where there is thorough efficiency in works and equip-
ment, and a full compliance with those national regulations
which control matters connected with public safety. The correct
dealing with the technical requirements and structural features
of the undertaking must always precede all other considerations,
as the constituted authorities will exact a proper fulfilment of all
the statutory obligations, regardless of the prospective remunera-
tion to the promoters. A stroke of the pen may change a train-
service, or alter the rates and tariffs, but a modification in the
works of construction arising out of errors or oversight, would
entail a heavy expenditure and tedious delay. The essential
point of every railway undertaking must be its suitability and
completeness in every respect for the duty for which it is
intended.

Notes of what has been done are always valuable for con-
sideration and comparison, and that the following brief de-
scription and sketches may be found useful for reference, is
the earnest wish of the writer.

W. EL MILLS,

MJnst.CE.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

Location of a line of railway — Government regulations — Questions for con-
sideration in connection with gauge, gradients, and curves ... 1

CHAPTER II.

Works of construction : Earthworks, Culverts, Bridges, Foundations, Screw

piles, Cylinders, Caissons, Retaining walls, and Tunnels ... 60

CHAPTER III.
Permanent way — Rails — Sleepers — Fastenings — and Permanent-way laying . 182

CHAPTER IV.

Stations : Station Buildings, Roofs, Lines, and Sidings .... 248

CHAPTER V.

Sorting-sidings — Turn-tables — Traversers — Water-Tanks and Water-Columns 285

CHAPTER VI.
Comparative Weights of some Types of Modern Locomotives 304

CHAPTER VII.

SignjJfl^Interlocking— Block Telegraph and Electric Train Staff Instruments 313

CHAPTER VIH.

Railways of different ranks — Progressive improvements — Growing tendency
for increased speeds, with corresponding increase in weight of permanent
way and rolling-stock — Electricity as a motive-power .... 348

Index 361

CHAPTER I.

Location of a line of railway — Government regulations— Questions for considera-
tion in connection with gauge, gradients, and curves.

Location. — The locating of a line of railway, or the determina-
tion of its exact route, is influenced by many circumstances.
In a rich country, with thickly populated districts and large
industrial enterprises, there are towns to be served, manufacturing
centres to be accommodated, and harbours to be brought into
connection; while, at the same time, there may be important
estates which must be avoided and private properties which
must not be entered. Each point will present its own individual
claim for consideration when selecting the route which promises
the greatest amount of public convenience and commercial
success.

In new countries — in our colonies, and especially out in the
far west of Canada and the United States — railways have to
be laid out in almost uninhabited districts, where there is but
little population or commerce to serve, and where the principal
object is to obtain the best and most direct route through the
vast territories, leaving colonists and settlers to choose after-
wards the most convenient sites for towns and villages.
Untrammelled by the network of public and private roads and
properties which are met with at home, it might appear that
the locating of such a line would be comparatively light; but
even in such countries, which at first sight seem to present
unlimited freedom for selecting a route, much can be done, and
should be done, by taking a course through those plains and
districts which possess the best natural resources for future
agricultural, manufacturing, or mineral development.

In addition to the motives of convenience and policy, the
route of every line of railway must be influenced by the natural
features of the country— the mountains, valleys, and rivers.
These physical obstacles are in some cases on such an enormous

B

2 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

scale as to compel long detours in the formation of a more
suitable opening; and in others, although the difficulties are
not insurmountable, they may involve works of great magnitude
and expense.

In a comparatively rich country, with a prospect of large
and remunerative traffic, a succession of heavy works, bridges,
and tunnels may be admissible and expedient; but in new
countries economy of outlay has to be considered, and costfy
works avoided as much as possible.

Every one of the heavy works on a line, whether lofty
bridges, long viaducts, or costly tunnels, not only enormously
increase the original expenditure of the undertaking, but also
entail large annual outlay in the necessary constant supervision
and maintenance.

Each particular scheme will have to be discussed on its own
individual merits. The heavy, high-speed passenger traffic line
will suggest light gradients and easy curves, while on secondary
lines and in thinly populated districts it may be prudent, for
the sake of economy, to introduce sharper curves and heavier
gradients. Even in the latter case, and especially in new
countries, it is well to keep in view the future possibilities of
the undertaking. The steeper the gradients, the greater the
cost and time in working the traffic, and if there is every
probability of early and large development, the prospective
increase may warrant an additional outlay in the original
construction.

Large, open plains and wide valleys of important rivers
generally afford ample latitude for the selection of a suitable
route, and, by taking advantage of the gradations of altitude,
a favourable course may be adopted without, incurring excessive
gradients. When traversing moderately hilly districts, some
low ridge or opening may be found, which may form a pass
from the one side to the other, and the line may be laid out for
a long distance to lead gradually up to the highest point. But
when a route has to be laid out over some of those lofty
mountain ranges which are met with abroad, the locating of
a suitable line, or of any line, becomes particularly intricate and
difficult. A comparatively low ridge may be found possessing
features in favour of the project, but the question will be how
to reach that point. The nearer the summit of these high
mountains, the more precipitous the sides; no one slope can

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 3

be found sufficiently long and uniform to permit a practical
direct ascent, and the only way out of the difficulty is to
make a series of detours along the various spurs of the mountains
to gain length to overcome the height. Each detour has to be
the subject of most careful study. Forming part of a long series
of ascending gradients, it has to follow the winding of the
mountain-side, must be laid out to be always gaining in height,
and will comprise important works, many of them of considerable
extent, necessary for protection against the floods and atmo-
spherical changes of the locality.

In these higher altitudes nature is met with on the grandest
and most rugged scale. Deep gorges, wide ravines, and almost
perpendicular rocks form the pathway along which the line
must be carried, and the skill of the engineer is taxed to the
utmost to select a course which shall comprise a minimum of
the works of magnitude. Mile after mile of line must be laid
out in almost, inaccessible places, loose or broken rocks must
be avoided, a firm foundation must be obtained at all points
skirting high ledges, and ample provision must be made for
those mountain torrents which rise so suddenly, and are liable
to sweep away all before them.

Many grand examples of these detour lines are in existence
in different parts of the world, and the traveller passing over
them can realize the difficulties that had to be encountered, and
the masterly manner in which they have been overcome.

Before proceeding to carry out the works of any line of
railway, it is necessary to prepare a complete plan and section
of the line, showing the route to be followed and the position
of the various curves, gradients, and principal works. Within
certain limits, the course of the line may have to be slightly
modified as the work proceeds, in consequence of ground turning
out unfavourable, river-crossings treacherous, or of sites in-
volving so many contingent alterations that it is found better
to avoid them altogether. The route should, however, be so
carefully studied out before completing the final plan and
section, as to leave only minor deviations of line and level to
be dealt with in the actual carrying out of the work.

The promoters of lines in the United Kingdom obtain
valuable assistance from the ordnance maps, which give full
and reliable information regarding the position of all roads,
rivers, and boundaries of counties, parishes, and townlands. In

4 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

many parts abroad local maps are scarce, and not always
accurate, and engineers have to depend principally on their
own surveys, and rely upon the resident local authorities for
any particulars as to divisions of territory. On some of our
great colonial plains, and out in the far west of America, a line
may be laid out for miles without a single landmark to localize
it on a plan ; but careful setting out, and the relative levels of
the ground and gradients, as shown on the section, will always
indicate the correct position of any portion of the work.

Both at home and abroad complete plans and sections of
any proposed railway must be deposited with the proper
Government authorities, and must be approved and sanctioned
by them before permission can be obtained to proceed with
the works.

The regulations regarding the scale and general arrange-
ment of these plans and sections vary in different countries,
and are subject to modification from time to time.

Each country has its own special enactments relative to the
method of dealing with roads, rivers, -streams, and public and
private property proposed to be interfered with in the con-
struction of any line, and a knowledge of these is absolutely
necessary for the promoters of any new scheme, inasmuch as
some of the requirements may, in certain instances, influence
the precise route to be selected.

The English Government has passed several Acts of Parlia-
ment setting forth the general conditions which must be complied
with in the construction of any railway in the United Kingdom.
These conditions, or standing orders, relate both to the acquire-
ment of land and property, the size and description of works for
public or private accommodation, and the inspection and official
approval of the undertaking when completed. These fixed
regulations are alike valuable to the promoters and to the public;
the former are informed of the principal points with which the
scheme must conform, and the latter know the limit of their
legal demands.

No line of railway, or extension of any railway, will obtain
Parliamentary sanction unless it can be satisfactorily proved in
the outset, that its construction would be of public advantage.
This point is of paramount importance, and due weight must be
given to it when preparing to refute the evidence of opponents
to the scheme.

it';-.L-

V.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

6 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

When conceding the right to make any railway, Parliament
grants with it the power to purchase lands or property com-
pulsorily, or by agreement, to change and divert roads and
streams in the manner shown on the deposited plans, and to
construct all necessary bridges and works in accordance with
the standing orders, or such modifications of them as may be
approved by the Board of Trade.

The standing orders, or Government regulations, are very
comprehensive, and include much detailed information on all
questions likely to arise. The following brief summary of some
of the principal orders relating to deposited plans, and works of
construction, will be found useful for reference.

Extract from Government Standing Orders and Regulations. —
All plans and sections relative to proposed new railways must
be lodged with the constituted Government Authorities on or
before November 30.

Every deposited plan must be drawn to a scale of not less
than four inches to a mile, and must describe the centre line, or
situation of the work (no alternative line being allowed), and
must show all lands, gardens, or buildings within the limits of
deviation, each one being numbered with a reference number,
and where powers to make lateral deviations are applied for, the
limits of such deviation must be marked on the plan.

Unless the whole of such plan be drawn to a scale of not
less than 400 feet to an inch, an enlarged plan must be drawn
to that scale of every building and garden within the limits of
deviation.

The Railway Clauses Act limits the extent of deviation to
100 yards on each side of the centre line in the country, and
10 yards on each side of the centre line in towns or villages.

The distances must be marked on the plan in miles and
furlongs from one of the termini.

The radius of every curve not exceeding one mile must be
marked on the plan in furlongs and chains.

In tunnels the centre line must be dotted, but no work must
be shown as tunnelling, in the making of which it is necessary
to cut through, or remove the surface soil. If it is intended to
divert or alter any public road, navigable river, canal, or railway,
the course and extent of such diversion, etc., shall be marked on
the plan.

When a railway is to form a junction with an existing

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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8 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

railway, the course of such existing railway must be shown on
the plan for a distance of 800 yards on each side of the proposed
junction. In the case of Bills for constructing subways, the
plans and sections must indicate the height and width of such
subway, and the nature of the approaches by which it is proposed
to afford access to such subway.

The Book of Reference must contain the names of all owners,
lessees, and occupiers of all lands and houses of every parish
within the limits of deviation.

The numbers on the Book of Reference must correspond with
the numbers on the plan, and opposite to each number must be
entered a brief description of the property, whether field, garden,
house, road, railway, or river. It is intended that the plan and
Book of Reference together, shall afford ample information to
enable all parties interested to ascertain to what extent their
property will be affected by the proposed undertaking.

The section must be drawn to the same horizontal scale as
the plan, and to a vertical scale of not less than 100 feet to an
inch, and must show the level of the ground, the level of the
proposed work, the height of every embankment, the depth of
every cutting, and a horizontal datum line which shall be referred
to some fixed point, near one of the termini.

In every section of a railway, the line of railway marked
thereon must correspond with the upper surface of the rails.

Distances on the datum line must be marked in miles and
furlongs to correspond with those on the plan ; a vertical measure
from the datum line to the line of the railway must be marked
in feet and decimals at the commencement and termination of
the railway, and at each change of gradient, and the rate of
inclination between such vertical measures must also be marked.

Wherever the line of railway crosses any public carriage
road, navigable river, canal, or railway, the height of the railway
over, or depth beneath the surface thereof, and the height and
span of every arch by which the railway will be carried over the
same, must be marked in figures.

In the case of a public road level crossing, it must be described
on the section, and it must also be stated if such level will be
unaltered. If any alteration be intended in the level of any
canal, public road, or railway which will be crossed by the
intended line of railway, the same must be stated on the section
and cross-sections to a horizontal scale of not less than 330 feet

UUTAY CONSTWCTIO*

io RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

to an inch, and a vertical scale of not less than 40 feet to an inch
must be added, which must show the present surface of such
road, canal, eta, and the intended surface thereof when altered,
and the greatest of the present and intended rates of inclination
marked in figures, such cross-sections to extend 200 yards on
each side of the centre line of railway.

Wherever the height of any embankment, or depth of any
cutting, shall exceed 5 feet, the extreme height over or depth
beneath the surface of the ground must be marked in figures
upon the section.

All tunnels and viaducts must be shown on the section.

At a junction with an existing railway, the gradient of such
existing railway must be shown on the section on the same scale
as the general section for a distance of 800 yards on each side of
the point of junction.

Where the level of any turnpike or public road has to be
altered in making any railway, the gradient of any altered road
need not be better than the mean inclination of the existing road
within a distance of 250 yards of the point of crossing the
railway ; but where the existing roads have easy gradients, then
the gradients of the altered roads, whether carried over, or under,
or on the level with the railway, must not be steeper than 1 in
30 for a turnpike road, 1 in 20 for a public carriage road, 1 in 16
for a private or occupation road.

A good and sufficient fence, 4 feet high at least, shall be
made on each side of every bridge, and fences 3 feet high on
the approaches.

The application to cross any public road on the level must be
reported upon by one of the officers of the Board of Trade, and
special permission for the work must be embodied in the Act

Not more than 20 houses of the labouring classes may be
purchased in any city or parish in England, Scotland, and Wales,
or more than 10 such houses in Ireland, until approval has been
obtained to a scheme for building such houses in lieu thereof as
the authorities may deem necessary.

Every bridge (unless specially authorized to be otherwise)
must conform with the following regulations : —

A bridge over a turnpike road must have a clear span of
35 feet on the square between the abutments, with a headway,
or height, of 16 feet for a width of 12 feet, as shown on Fig. 12.

A bridge over a public road must have a clear span of 25 feet

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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12 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

on the square between the abutments, with a headway of 15 feet
for a width of 10 feet, as shown on Fig. 13.

A bridge over a private or occupation road must have a clear
span of 12 feet on the square between the abutments, with a
headway of 14 feet for a width 9 feet, as shown on Fig. 14.

Road bridges over the railway must have the same clear
width between the parapets, measured on the square, as the
widths prescribed for road bridges under the railway, or 35 feet
for a turnpike road, 25 feet for a public road, and 12 feet for
private or occupation road.

It is not compulsory, however, to construct the public road
bridges over or under the railway of a greater width than the
average available width of the existing roads within 50 yards
of the point of crossing the railway, but in no case must a bridge
have a less width than 20 feet Should the narrow roads be
widened at any future time, the railway company will be under
the obligation to widen the bridges at their own expense to the
extent of the statutory widths of 35 feet for a turnpike road,
and 25 feet for a public road.

Suitable accommodation works in the form of bridges, level
crossings, gates, or other works, must be provided for the owners,
or occupiers of lands, or properties intersected or affected by the
construction of the railway ; or payments may be made by agree-
ment instead of accommodation works. All questions, or differ-
ences between the Railway Company, and the owners, or
occupiers of property affected, will be decided by the authorities
duly appointed by the Government for the purpose.

In constructing the railway, the Parliamentary plans and
sections may be deviated from to the following extent : —

The centre line may be deviated anywhere within the limits
of deviation (100 yards on each side of the centre line in
country, and 10 yards each side in towns, or villages).

Curves may be sharpened up to half a mile radius, and
further, if authorized by the Board of Trade.

A tunnel may be made instead of a cutting, and a viaduct
instead of an embankment, if authorized by the Board of Trade.

The levels may be deviated from to the extent of 5 feet in
the country, and 2 feet in a town, or village, and various
authorities have power to consent to further deviations.

Gradients may be diminished to any extent, gradients flatter
than 1 in 100 may be made steeper to the extent of 10 feet in a

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

»3

14

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

mile, and gradients steeper than 1 in 100 may be made steeper
to the extent of 3 feet in a mile, or to such further extent as
may be authorized by the Board of Trade.

Suitable fences must be erected on each side of the line, to
separate the land taken for the use of the railway from the
adjoining lands not taken, and to protect such lands from
trespass, or the cattle of the owners, or occupiers thereof from
straying on to the railway.

In addition to the Parliamentary plans, and sections, and
Book of Reference, an estimate of the cost of each separate line,
or branch, must be prepared as near to the following form as
circumstances will permit.

Estimate of the Pbopobed (Railway).

Line No.

Length of Line :

Miles.

F.

Chs.

Whether tingle or doable.

Earthworks : —
Cuttings— Rook. . .
Soft soil
Roads

Total

Cable yards.

Price per
yard.

«.

Embankments, inoluding roads,

Bridges, pnblio roads— number
Accommodation bridges and works ...

Viaducts

Culverts and drains

Metallings of roads and level orossings
Gatekeepers' houses at level orossings
Permanent way, inoluding fencing : —

Miles. F. Cos.

cubic yards

*.

Cost per mile.
£ «. d.

— at ' — — _

Permanent way for sidings, and cost of junctions
Stations

Contingencies

.per cent.

a. r. p.
Land and buildings — — —

Dated this_
Witness :

.day of.

Total ...
18

...£

Engineer.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

16 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

The same details for each branch, and general summary of
total cost.

Every Railway Bill must be read twice, both in the House
of Commons and in the House of Lords. A committee, duly
appointed for each House, must report upon it, and if the reports
from such committees be favourable, the Bill will be read a
third time, and passed.

When it has passed both Houses, the Bill receives the Royal
Assent, and becomes law.

The minimum scale of four inches to a mile for the plans is
so very small that it is rarely, if ever, adopted. It would
necessitate enlarged plans of so many portions to show clearly
the property or buildings inside the limits of deviation, that in
practice it is found expedient to make the plans to a much
larger scale.

Figs. 1 and 2 show a small portion of a Parliamentary plan
and section drawn to the minimum scale allowed, with an
enlargement of a small part to distinguish the houses clearly.

Figs. 3 and 4 show a part of the same plan and section drawn
to a scale of 400 feet to an inch, a scale which is very frequently
adopted, and is sufficiently large to distinguish the buildings
and small plots, except in closely populated districts. This scale
also gives ample room for reference numbers.

The Parliamentary plans and sections must be accurate in
delineation, levels, and description. All property within the
prescribed limits of deviation must be clearly shown, and the
numbers and description on the plans and book of reference
must be concise and complete, to enable the owners to ascertain
to what extent they will be affected. In every place where it is
proposed to interfere with any public highway, street, footpath,
river or canal, the manner of such proposed alteration must be
shown and described on both plan and section. The commence-
ment and termination of every tunnel must be correctly indicated,
and the length given on both plan and section. An omission of
any of the above requirements might prove very detrimental to
the scheme, and possibly result in the Bill being thrown out of
Parliament for non-compliance with standing orders.

In carrying out the works the constructors have power to
deviate the centre line either to the one side or the other,
provided that such deviation will permit of the boundary of the
works, or property to be acquired, to come within the limits

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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18 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

of deviation or property referenced, and they may also vary the
levels of the line to the extent prescribed in the standing orders.

Figs. 5 and 6 are parts of a Parliamentary plan and section
showing alteration of a public road with an overline bridge —
also a diversion of a small river to avoid two river bridges.

Figs. 7 and 8 are parts of a Parliamentary plan and section
showing a public road diverted and carried under the railway.

A stipulated time is fixed in the Bill for the purchase of the
property and construction of the line, and if this time be
exceeded before the completion of the works, it will be necessary
to obtain further Parliamentary powers for an extension of time.

Every new railway, or extension of railway, in the United
Kingdom, must be inspected, and certified, by one of the
inspecting officers of the Board of Trade, previous to Government
sanction being granted for its opening as a passenger line.

To facilitate these inspections, and as a guide both to their
own inspecting officers and the engineers in charge of the
construction, the Board of Trade have issued a list of the
principal requirements in connection with all new lines.

The following is a copy of the list so far as relates to works
of construction and signals : —

Bequirements of the Board of Trade. — 1. The requisite apparatus
for providing by means of the block telegraph system an adequate
interval of space between following trains, and, in the case of
junctions, between converging or crossing trains. In the case
of single lines worked by one engine under steam (or two or
more coupled together) carrying a staff, no such apparatus will
be required.

2. Home-signals and distant-signals for each direction to
be fixed at stations and junctions, with extra signals for such
dock, or bay lines, as are used either for the arrival, or for the
departure of trains, and starting-signals for each direction, at all
passenger stations which are also block posts. On passenger
lines all cross-over roads and all connections for goods, or mineral
lines, and sidings to be protected by home and distant signals,
and as a rule at all important running junctions a separate
distant-signal to be provided in connection with each home-
signal.

Signals may be dispensed ivith on single lines under the
following conditions : —

(a) At all stations and hiding connections upon a line

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

20 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

worked by one engine only (or two engines coupled together),
carrying a staff, and when all points are locked by such staff.

(b) At any intermediate siding cormection upon a line
worked u/nder the train staff and ticket system, or under the
electric staff or tablet system, where the points are locked by the
staff or tablet.

(c) At intermediate stations, which are not staff or tablet
stations, upon a line worked under the electric staff or tablet
system : Sidings, if any, being locked as in (6).

3. The signals at junctions to be on separate posts, or on
brackets ; and the signals at stations, when there is more than
one arm on one side of a post, to be made to apply — the first, or
upper arm, to the line on the left, the second arm to the line
next in order from the left, and so on ; but in cases where the
main, or more important line, is not the one on the left, separate
signal-posts to be provided, or the arms to be on brackets.
Distant-signals to be distinguished by notches cut out of the
ends of the arms, and to be controlled by home or starting
signals for the same direction when on the same post. A
distant-signal arm must not be placed above a home or starting
signal arm on the same post for trains going in the same direction.

In the case of sidings, a low short arm and a small signal
light, distinguishable from the arms or lights for the passenger
lines, may be employed, but in such cases disc signals are, as
a rule, preferable.

Every signal arm to be so weighted as to fly to and remain
at danger on the breaking at any point of the connection
between the arm and the lever working it.

4. On new lines worked independently, the front signal
lights to be green for "all right," and red for "danger;" the
back lights (visible only when the signals are at "danger") to
be white.

This requirement not to be obligatory in the case of new lines
run over by trains of other companies usiing a different system
of lights.

5. Facing points to be avoided as far as possible, but when
they cannot be dispensed with they must be placed as near as
practicable to the levers by which they are worked or bolted.
The limit of distance from levers working points to be 180 yards
in the case of facing points, and 300 yards in the case of trailing
points on the main line, or safety points of sidings.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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In order to ensure that the points are in their proper
position before the signals are lowered, and to . prevent the
signalman from shifting them while a train is passing over
them, all facing points must be fitted with facing-point locks
and locking-bars, and with means for detecting any failure in
the connections between the signal-cabin and points. The
length of the locking-bars to exceed the greatest wheel-base
between any two pairs of wheels of the vehicles in use on
the line, and the stock rails to be tied to gauge with iron or
steel ties. All points, whether facing or trailing, to be worked
or bolted by rods, and not by wires, and to be fitted with double
connecting-rods.

6. The levers by which points and signals are worked to be
interlocked and, as a rule, brought close together, into the
position most convenient for the person working them, in a
signal-cabin or on a properly constructed stage. The signal-
cabin to be commodious, and to be supplied with a clock, and
with a separate block instrument for signalling trains on each
line of rails. The point-levers and signal-levers to be so placed
in the cabin that the signalman when working them shall have
the best possible view of the railway, and the cabin itself to be
so situated as to enable the signalman to see the arms and the
lights of the signals and the working of the points. The back
lights of the signal lamps to be made as small as possible, having
regard to efficiency, and when the front lights are visible to the
signalman in his cabin no back lights to be provided. The
fixed lights in the signal-cabin to be screened off, so as not to
be mistakable for the signals exhibited to control the running
of trains. If, from any unavoidable cause, the arm and light of
any signal cannot be seen by the signalman they must, as a rule,
be repeated in the cabin.

7. The interlocking to be so arranged that the signalman shall
be unable to lower a signal for the approach of a train until
after he has set the points in the proper position for it to pass ;
that it shall not be possible for him to exhibit at the same
moment any two signals that can lead to a collision between
two trains ; and that, after having lowered the signals to allow
a train to pass, he shall not be able to move any points con-
nected with, or leading to, the line on which the train is moving.
Points also, if possible, to be so interlocked as to avoid the risk
of a collision.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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Home or starting signals next in advance of trailing-points
when lowered, to lock such points in either position, unless such
locking will unduly interfere with the traffic

A distant signal must not be capable of being lowered unless
the home and starting signals in advance of it have been
lowered.

8. Sidings to be so arranged that shunting operations upon
them shall cause the least possible obstruction to the passenger
lines. Safety-points to be provided upon goods and mineral
lines and sidings, at their junctions with passenger lines, with
the points closed against the passenger lines and interlocked
with the signals.

9. When a junction is situated near to a passenger station,
the platforms to be so arranged as to prevent, as far as possible,
any necessity for standing trains on the junction.

10. The junctions of all single lines to be, as a rule, formed
as double-line junctions.

11. The lines of railway leading to the passenger platforms to
be arranged so that the engines shall always be in front of the
passenger trains as they arrive at and depart from a station ;
and so that, in the case of double lines, or of passing places on
single lines, each line shall have its own platform. At terminal
stations a double line of railway must not end as a single line.

12. Platforms to be continuous, and not less than 6 feet
wide for stations of small traffic, nor less than 12 feet wide for
important stations. The descents at the ends of the platforms
to be by ramps, and not by steps. Pillars for the support of
roofs and other fixed works not to be less than 6 feet from the
edges of the platforms. The height of the platforms above rail
level to be 3 feet, save under exceptional circumstances, and in
no case less than 2 feet 6 inches. The edges of the platforms to
overhang not less than 12 inches. As little space as possible
to be left between the edges of the platforms and those of the
footboards on the carriages. Shelter to be provided on every
platform, and conveniences where necessary. Names of stations
to be shown on boards and on the platform lamps.

13. When stations are placed on, or near a viaduct, or bridge
under the railway, a parapet or fence on each side to be pro-
vided of sufficient height to prevent passengers, who may by
mistake leave the carriages when not at the platform, from
falling from the viaduct or bridge in the dark.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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14. Footbridges or subways to be provided for passengers
to cross the railway at all exchange and other important stations.
Staircases or ramps leading to or from platforms to be at no
point narrower than at the top, and the available width to be
in no case contracted by any erection or fixed obstruction what-
ever below the top.

At all stations where crowding may be expected, the stair-
cases or ramps to be of ample width, and banders for regulating
the entrance of the crowd at the top to be erected. If in such
cases there are gates at the bottom, a speaking-tube or other
means of communication between the top and bottom to be
provided ; and in all cases gates at the bottom of a staircase or
ramp to open outwards. For closing the openings at the top,
sliding bars or gates are considered best.

The steps of staircases to be never less than 11 inches in the
tread, nor more than 7 inches in the rise, and midway landings
to be provided where the height exceeds 10 feet.

Efficient handrails to be provided on both staircases and
ramps, and in subways where ramps are used the inclination not
to exceed 1 in 8.

15. A clock to be provided at every station, in some con-
spicuous position visible from the platforms.

16. No station to be constructed, and no siding to join a
passenger line, on a steeper gradient than 1 in 260, except where
it is unavoidable. When the line is double, and the gradient at
a station or siding-junction is necessarily steeper than 1 in 260,
and when danger is to be apprehended from vehicles running
back, a catch-siding with points weighted for the siding, or a
throw -off switch, to be provided to intercept runaway vehicles at
a distance outside the home-signal for the ascending line, greater
than the length of the longest train running upon the line.

Under similar circumstances, when the line is single, pro-
vision for averting danger from runaway vehicles to be made —
(1) At a station in one of the following manners : —

(a) A second line to be laid down, a second platform to be
constructed, and a catch-siding or throw-off switch to
be provided on the ascending line inside the loop-
points.

(b) A loop-line to be constructed lower down the incline

than the station platform with a similarly placed
catch-siding or throw-off switch.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 27

(2) At a siding-junction in one of the following manners,
except where it is possible to work the traffic with the engine
at the lower end. of a goods or mineral train, in which case an
undertaking (see No. 35) to do so, given by the company, will
be accepted as sufficient : —

(a) A similar loop to be constructed as in the case of a

station.
(6) Means to be provided for placing the whole train on
sidings clear of the main line before any shunting
operations are commenced.

17. Engine- turntables of sufficient diameter to enable the
longest engines and tenders in use on the line to be turned
without being uncoupled to be erected at terminal stations and
at junctions and other places at which the engines require to be
turned, except in cases of short lines not exceeding 15 miles in
length, where the stations are not at a greater distance than
3 miles apart, and the railway company gives an undertaking
(see No. 35) to stop all trains at all stations. Care to be taken
to keep all turntables at safe distances from the adjacent lines
of rails, so that engines, waggons, or carriages, when being
turned, may not foul other lines or endanger the traffic upon
them.

18. Cast-iron must not be used for railway under-bridges,
except in the form of arched-ribbed girders, where the material
is in compression.

In a cast-iron arched bridge, or in the cast-iron girders of an
over-bridge, the breaking weight of the girders not to be less
than three times the permanent load due to the weight of the
superstructure, added to six times the greatest moving load that
can be brought upon it

In a wrought-iron or steel bridge, the greatest load which
can be brought upon it, added to the weight of the super-
structure, not to produce a greater strain per square inch on any
part of the material than five tons where wrought-iron is used,
or six tons and a half where steel is used.

The engineer responsible for any steel structure to forward
to the Board of Trade a certificate to the effect that the steel
employed is either cast-steel, or steel made by some process of
fusion, subsequently rolled or hammered, and of a quality pos-
sessing considerable toughness and ductility, together with a
statement of all the tests to which it has been subjected.

28 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

19. In cases where bridges or viaducts are constructed wholly
or partially of timber, a sufficient factor of safety, depending on
the nature and quality of the timber, to be provided for.

N.B. — The heaviest engines, boiler trucks, or travelling
cranes in use on railways afford a measure of the greatest moving
loads to which a bridge can be subjected. The above rules apply
equally to the main transverse girders and rail-bearers.

20. It is desirable that viaducts should, as far as possible, be
wholly constructed of brick or stone, and in such cases they
must have parapet walls on each side, not under 4 feet 6 inches
in height above the rail level, and not less than 18 inches
thick.

Where it is not practicable to construct the viaducts of brick
or stone, and iron or steel girders are made use of, it is con-
sidered best that in important viaducts the permanent way
should be laid between the main girders. In all cases sub-
stantial parapets, with a height of not less than 4 feet 6 inches
above rail-level must be provided by an addition to the
girders, unless the girders themselves are sufficiently high.
On important viaducts where the superstructure is of iron,
steel, or timber, substantial outside wheel-guards to be fixed
above the level of, and as close to the outer rails as possible, but
not so as to be liable to be struck by any part of an engine or
train running on the rails.

In the construction of the abutments or piers which support
the girders of high bridges and viaducts, cast-iron columns of
small size must not be used.

In all large structures a wind-pressure of 56 lbs. per square
foot to be assumed for the purpose of calculation, which will be
based on the rules laid down in the report, dated 30th May,
1881, of the committee appointed by the Board of Trade to con-
sider the question of wind-pressure on railway structures.

21. The upper surfaces of the wooden platforms of bridges
and viaducts to be protected from fire.

22. All castings for use in railway structures to be, where
practicable, cast in a similar position to that which they are
intended to occupy when fixed.

23. The joints of rails to be secured by means of fish-plates,
or by some other equally secure fastening. On main lines, and
lines where heavy traffic may be worked at high speed, the
chairs not to weigh less than 40 lbs. ; but on branch lines, or

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 29.

lines on which the traffic is light, chairs weighing not less than
30 lbs. may be used.

24. When chairs are used to support the rails they must be
secured to the sleepers, at least partially, by iron spikes or bolts.
With fiat-bottomed rails, when there are no chairs, or with
bridge rails, the fastenings at the joints, and at some inter-
mediate places, to consist of fang or other through-bolts ; and
such rails, on curves with radii of 15 chains or less, to be tied to
gauge by iron or steel ties at suitable intervals.

25. In any curve where the radius is 10 chains or less, a.
check-rail to be provided.

26. Diamond-crossings, as a rule, not to be flatter than 1 in 8.

27. No standing work (other than a passenger platform) to
be nearer to the side of the widest carriage in use on the line-
than 2 feet 4 inches, at any point between the level of 2 feet
6 inches above the rails, and the level of the upper parts of the
highest carriage doors. This applies to all arches, abutments,
piers, supports, girders, tunnels, bridges, roofs, walls, posts, tanks,
signals, fences, and other works, and to ail projections at the-
side of a railway constructed to any gauge.

28. The intervals between adjacent lines of rails, where there
are two lines only, or between lines of rails and sidings, not to-
be less than 6 feet Where additional running lines of rails are
alongside the main lines, an interval of not less than 9 feet
6 inches to be provided, if possible, between such additional
lines and the main lines.

29. At all level crossings of public roads, the gates to be so*
constructed that they may be closed either across the rail-
way, or across the road at each side of the crossing, and a lodge,,
or, in the case of a station, a gatekeeper's box, to be provided,
unless the gates are worked from a signal cabin. The gates-
must not be capable of being opened at the same time for the road
and the railway, and must be so hung as not to admit of being
opened outwards towards the road. Stops to be provided to keep
the gates in position across the road or railway. Wooden gates.
are considered preferable to iron gates, and single gates on each
side to double gates. Red discs, or targets, must be fixed on the
gates, with lamps for night use, and semaphore signals in one
or both directions interlocked with the gates, may be required..
At all level crossings of public roads or footpaths, a footbridge
or a subway may be required.

30 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

At occupation and field crossings, the gates must be kept
hung so as to open outwards from the line.

30. Sidings connected with the main lines near a public road
level crossing to be so placed that shunting may be carried on
with as little interference as possible with the level crossing ;
and, as a rule, the points of the sidings to be not less than 100
yards from the crossing.

31. At public road level crossings in or near populous places,
the lower portions of the gates to be either close barred, or
covered with wire netting.

32. Mile posts, half mile, and quarter-mile posts, and
gradient-boards to be provided along the line.

33. Tunnels and long viaducts to be in all cases constructed
with refuges for the safety of platelayers. On under-bridges
without parapets, handrails to be provided. Viaducts of steel,
iron, or timber to be provided with manholes or other facilities
for inspection.

34. Continuous brakes (in accordance with the Regulation of
Railways Act of 1889), complying with the following require-
ments, to be provided on all trains carrying passengers, viz. —

(1) The brake must be instantaneous in action, and capable

of being applied by the engine-driver and guards.

(2) The brake must be self-applying in the event of any
failure in the continuity of its action.

(3) The brake must be capable of being applied to every

vehicle of the train, whether carrying passengers or
not.

(4) The brake must be in regular use in daily working.

(5) The materials of the brake must be of a durable

character, and easily maintained and kept in order.

35. Any undertaking furnished by a railway company to be
under the seal, and signed by the chairman and secretary of the
company.

Recommendations as to the Working of Railway*— 1. There
should be a brake vehicle, with a guard in it, at or near the
tail of every passenger train ; this vehicle should be provided
with a raised roof and extended sides, glazed to the front and
back, and it should be the duty of the guard to keep a constant
look-out from it along his train.

2. All passenger carriages should be provided with con-
tinuous footboards, extending the whole length of each carriage,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 31

and as far as the outer ends of the buffer castings. As passenger
carriages pass from one company's line to another's, it is essential
for the public safety that, although the widths of the carriages
on the different lines may differ from each other, the widths
across the carriages from the outside of the continuous footboard
on one side, to the outside of the continuous footboard on the
opposite side, should be identical for the carriages of all railway
companies, so that the lines of rails may be laid at the proper
distance from the edges of the passenger platforms.

3. There should be efficient means of communication between
the guard, or guards, of every passenger train and the engine-
driver, and between the passengers and the servants of the
company in charge of the train.

4. The tyres of all wheels should be so secured as to prevent
them from flying open when they are fractured.

5. The engines employed with passenger trains should be of
a steady description, with not less than six wheels, with the
centre of gravity in front of the driving-wheels, and with the
motions balanced. They should, as a rule, be run chimney in
front.

6. Records should be carefully kept of the work performed
by the wearing parts of the rolling stock, to afford practical
information in regard to them, and to prevent them from being
retained in use longer than is desirable.

7. In addition to the block-telegraph instruments, it is
desirable that there should be speaking-instruments, or tele-
phones, for communication between signalmen, and books for
recording the running of the trains.

8. When drovers or other persons are permitted to travel
with goods or cattle trains, suitable vehicles should be provided
for their accommodation.

9. It is considered that, in fixed signals, the front lights
should show —

Green, for all right;
Red, for danger;

and that back lights, visible only when the signals are at danger,
should show white.

10. Refuge sidings should be provided at all main-line
stations where slow trains are liable to be shunted for fast
trains to pass them. If at such stations it is impossible to

32 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

provide refuge sidings, and slow trains have to be shunted from
one main line to the other to allow of fast trains passing them,
some simple arrangements should be supplied in the signal
cabins to help to remind the signalman of the shunted train.

11. Efficient means should be adopted to prevent the
accidental opening of the doors of passenger trains.

To carry out the undertaking, the engineer has to prepare
working plans and sections to a somewhat larger scale than that
adopted for the Government or Parliamentary plans, and on
which must be marked the exact positions of the commence-
ment of the curves, straight lines, and gradients. The sites of
all the over and under bridges must be shown, and their angles
of crossing noted. All road, river, or stream diversions must be
indicated, so that the work in connection with them may be laid
out on the ground. All culverts and drains must be marked,
and their size, depth, and direction described. Public road level-
crossings, and farm or occupation-road crossings, must be shown
in their proper positions.

The face-lines of the ends of all tunnels should be marked on
the working plan and section, and the position of any shafts,
which may be intended either for use in carrying on the work
or for future ventilation.

A considerable amount of investigation and negotiation will
have to be entered into before the locating of the above works
can be finally decided. The desire to meet the wishes and
convenience of all parties interested must of necessity be con-
trolled by the physical circumstances of each case ; very little
alteration can be made in the level of the rails, although some
variation may be made in their position.

When fixing the depths of culverts and drains, attention
must be paid to any probable improvement in the drainage of
the district, which might at some future time necessitate the
deepening of such of the main culverts where the inverts had
been laid too high.

Unless all these details are determined, and shown on the
working-plans before the works are commenced, there is the
risk that embankments may have to be opened out to admit of
bridges and culverts, and cuttings changed to permit of road
diversions.

The entire centre-line of railway must be carefully staked

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 33

out by driving strong wooden pegs into the ground at the end of
every chain length, and along the course of these pegs the longi-
tudinal section must be taken. Three pegs, one on each side of
the centre peg, are generally placed at the commencement and
termination of the curves. When the longitudinal section has
been plotted to scale, and the course of the gradients and level
portions worked out and drawn on, then the heights of the
ground level and formation level can be marked at each chain,
and from them the depths of the cutting and the heights of the
embankments can be ascertained and marked at each chain. In
addition to the longitudinal section, it will be necessary to take
a large number of transverse or cross sections at those pegs, or
intermediate points, where the ground is at all side-lying or
irregular. These cross-sections are necessary to determine the
side- widths, or distances to outer edge of slopes in cuttings or
embankments, and also to calculate the actual quantity of earth-
work to be executed. For convenience in taking out the
quantities, these cross-sections are generally plotted to a natural
scale, that is to say, to the same scale horizontal as vertical, as
shown in the example of cross-sections, Figs. 15 to 24. It
is also necessary to obtain information, by boring or otherwise,
as to the material of which the cuttings are composed, whether
clay, gravel, or rock.

In laying out lines through fairly level plains and populous
districts, the absence of great natural obstacles will allow the
engineer to carefully consider how far it may be prudent to
diverge to the right or to the left, to accommodate towns and
places which would be excluded by a more direct through route.
There will be ample range for selection, and it will be rather the
question of policy than compulsion which will guide him in the
route to be taken.

When, however, the locating passes from the lower ground,
away up amongst the hills and mountain ranges, it becomes an
intricate study whether it will be possible to lay out any line at
all which may possess gradients and curves practicable for
railway working. The question of property, population, or con-
venience of access, is here no longer the controlling influence,
but in its stead there are the far more formidable natural
difficulties to be overcome in working out a trackway to the
inevitable summit level. The chief endeavour will be to gain
length, and so reduce as much as possible the steepness of the

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34

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 35

gradients which at the best must necessarily be severe. In
some of the earlier mountain lines constructed abroad the
system of zigzags was introduced, as shown in Fig. 25.
These zigzags were laid out on ruling gradients, one above
the other, on the sides of the mountain slopes with pieces of
level at the apices, A, B, and C, on which the engine could be
changed from one end of the train to the other. Although
feasible in principle, the system entailed considerable loss of
time in train-working, and was not unattended with risk.

The more modern and simple method of working out the
same idea is to connect the main zigzag lines by curves or
spirals, thus rendering the route continuous and unbroken.
By this arrangement the heavy work and delay in starting or
stopping the train at the apices, A, B, and C, as shown on Fig.
25, is avoided, and the train can proceed continuously on its
circuitous journey. Fig. 26 shows an instance of the zigzags and
spirals, as carried out on an important railway abroad. To have
made a direct line from D to E, the most difficult part of the
route, would have involved a gradient of 1 in 11 ; but by con-
structing the spiral course, as shown, the length was more than
trebled, and the gradient reduced to 1 in 35.

Fig. 27 is another example of spiral zigzags in which advan-
tage was taken to cut a short tunnel through a high narrow neck
of rock at G, and then by skirting round the hill the line was
taken over the top of the tunnel and along the side of the
mountain to the summit tunnel at H. By this means the line
from F to H was laid out to an average gradient of 1 in 42.

Fig. 28 shows the Cumbres inclines on the Mexican Railway.
The route had to be located through one of the rugged passes of
the great Chain of the Andes, whose mountain-sides rise most
abruptly from the lower plains, to the great upper-land plateau,
some eight thousand feet above sea-level. The ground to be
traversed was so steep and difficult that, even with the best
available detours and greatest length that could be obtained, the
result was an average continuous gradient of 1 in 25 for 12
miles.

Fig. 29 is a plan of part of the Si Gothard Railway, showing
the principal tunnel 9£ miles long, and some of the adjoining
spiral tunnels. The long tunnel through the great Alpine
barrier was the only means of forming a railway connection
between the two points at Airolo and Qoeschenen. Constructed

36 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

-Fic.lS —

m^r*^-m*mm^m

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 37

in a straight line, with easy gradients, falling towards the
entrances, efficiency of drainage has been secured, and excessive
strain on motive-power avoided. The approaching valleys on
each side were in some places too irregular and broken to admit
of zigzag loops, and the spiral tunnels were adopted instead.
The enlarged plan of two of the spiral tunnels will explain the
method of working. An ascending train enters the first tunnel
at A, and after passing round almost an entire circle, on a rising
gradient, emerges at a much higher level at the point B.
Proceeding onward, the train enters the second tunnel at C, and
after passing round a similar circle, on a rising gradient, comes
out at a still higher point, D, and continues its course up the
valley.

The last five sketches illustrate some of the methods which
have been adopted when constructing railways through some of
the most difficult mountain ranges. They show what has been
done, and may serve as guides in working out the location of a
line in some hitherto unexplored region.

Gauge. — The gauge of a railway, or its width from inside to
inside of rails, affects both its cost and efficiency. If the gauge
be exceptionally wide, then the expenditure on works and rolling-
stock will be proportionately heavy ; and although theoretically
the extra wide gauge may possess greater capabilities for
accommodation and high-speed travelling, we may find in
practice that the necessary requirements may be provided on a
much more moderate gauge. On the other hand, if the gauge be
exceptionally narrow, there will be diminished convenience both
for passengers and merchandise, and a corresponding limit to the
speed in transit.

In isolated districts, where passenger traffic is of secondary
importance, and where the principal merchandise will be heavy
without -being bulky, such as mineral ores, slates, etc., a com-
parative narrow gauge may possibly suit the purpose. For
main trunk lines, however, where a large, heavy, and fast
passenger traffic will have to be worked, and where goods of all
kinds, many of them bulky without being heavy, will have to be
carried, an ample gauge must be selected to ensure convenience
and safety. A liberal gauge permits the use of commodious
rolling-stock without any great amount of lateral overhanging
weight outside the wheels ; whereas with a narrow gauge there
is the tendency — if not the necessity — to use vehicles which

38 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

have too great a

lateral overhang for proper stability, except at

very moderate speeds.

The following list shows the gauges adopted in various

countries : —

ft.

Ins.

England, Scotland, and Wales

4

H

Ireland

a • •

• * •

5

3

United States...

• • •

■ ■ •

4

8), with some lines 5 ft, 5 ft. 6 ins., and 6 ft.

Canada

■ • •

• • •

4

8} and 5 ft. 6 ins.

France...

• ■ •

* • •

4

8*

Belgium

• • •

4

8*

Holland

• ■ •

• ■ •

4

8*

Germany

• • •

■ • •

4

8*

Austria...

• ■ •

• • •

4

8*

Switzerland ...

• • *

• 9 •

4

8*

xhii y ... ...

Turkey.

• • ■
a • »

• • •
• • •

4

4

8*
8*

Hungary
Denmark

• • •
■ » •

• • •

• • •

4
4

8i
8*

Norway...

■ • •

• ■ •

4

8} and 3 ft. 6 ins.

Sweden

• • •

• • ■

4

8i

Mexico...

• • •

• ■ •

4

8} and 3 ft.

Egypt

■ • •

• • •

4

fy and 3 ft. 6 ins.

Peru

• • •

* • •

4

8*

NoyaSootia ...

• • •

• • •

4

S\ and 5 ft. 6 ins.

New South Wales

• • •

• • ■

4

8*

Brazil ... ...

• • •

• • •

4

8}, 5 ft. 3 ins., and 5 ft. 6 ins.

Uruguay Bepublic

• • •

• * •

4

8i

Russia ••• ...

• ■ •

• • •

5

South Australia

a • •

...

5

3

New Zealand ...

• • •

• • •

5

3

British India ...

• • •

• • •

5

6 and 1 metre.

Ceylon

■ • •

■ • •

5

6

Spain ...

• • •

■ • •

5

6

Portugal

• • •

• • •

5

6

Chili ...

• • •

• • ■

5

6

Argentine Bepublic

• • •

• ■ •

5

6

Cape Colonies

• • •

• • •

3

6

Japan ...

• • •

• • •

3

6

After many years' experience of actual working, the broad,
7 feet, gauge of the Great Western Railway has been abandoned
for the 4 feet 8£ inch gauge. Doubtless this decision was the
result of most careful deliberation, and was made upon convincing
proof that the 4 feet 8£ inch gauge could fulfil all the advantages
claimed for the wider gauge, whilst at the same time it possessed
the merit of less cost of construction and working, and greater
facilities for the exchange of traffic with other lines having the
standard, gauge. The facility of exchange, or through working-
of rolling-stock, is a leading element of successful railway
working, and it is difficult to estimate what would be the
amount of loss and delay if we had any great extent of break
of gauge on the main trunk lines of our own country.

Although some countries have selected gauges of 5 feet and

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 39

5 feet 6 inches, it is interesting to note that the largest number
have adopted the English standard gauge of 4 feet 8£ inches,
and that the miles of line laid to this gauge far outnumber all
the others. The fact that our own home lines, the principal
Continental lines, and nearly all that vast network of railways in
the United States of America, have been laid to the 4 feet 8£ inch
gauge, testifies to the general opinion of its utility and efficiency ;
and we know that included in that list are the railways which
carry the largest, heaviest, and fastest train service in the world.

It would be interesting to trace back, and, if possible,
ascertain from whence the exact gauge of 4 feet 8£ inches was
derived. No doubt, in the early days of the pioneer iron
highways in England, the railways were made the same gauge
as the tramroads which they superseded. But why was
4 feet 8£ inches the gauge of the tramroads ? We may reason-
ably infer that the first four-wheeled waggons used on the early
tramroads were in reality the same waggons which had been
previously used on the common roads for the conveyance of
coal and minerals to the ports for shipment, and that the
waggons were merely transferred from the roughly paved or
macadamised roads to the tramroads. Flanged wheels were
then unknown, and the introduction of the tram-plates was at
first simply designed to lessen the resistance to haulage. The
gauge, or width between the wheels, of these waggons may have
been the outcome of long experience as to the most suitable
width for convenience of load, stability during transit, or for
space occupied on the highway. The width may have been
handed down from generation to generation, going back to the
time when wheeled vehicles were first built in the country.
Perhaps in the beginning the first vehicles may have been
imported from Italy, or Greece — countries which in the earlier
ages were the most advanced in matters of luxury and
convenience.

When in Pompeii, a few years ago, the writer measured the
spaces between a large number of the wheel-ruts which are
worn deep into the paving-stones in many of the principal
streets of that wonderful unearthed city. These paving-stones,
very irregular in shape, and many of them 2 feet 6 inches long by
I foot 6 inches wide, are carefully fitted together, and form a
compact massive pavement from curbstone to curbstone. The
wheel-tracks, which are in many places worn into the stones

40 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

to the depth of an inch or an inch and a half, are always distinct,
and there is no difficulty in defining the corresponding track.

The result of a large number of measurements gave an
average width of about 4 feet 11 inches from centre to centre of
the wheel-tracks, a curious coincidence with the gauge of our own
road vehicles at the beginning of the railway era. Whether our
selection of the railway gauge of 4 feet 8£ inches has been the
result of study, imitation, or caprice, we certainly have the silent
testimony of these old deep-worn stones to prove that two
thousand years ago the chariots of Pompeii were of very similar
gauge to our own of modern times.

Narrow-gauge railways, of gauges varying from 1 foot
10£ inches on the Festiniog Railway, to 3 feet, 3 feet 3 inches
(metre), and 3 feet 6 inches, have been made in several places
both at home and abroad. Generally speaking, they have been
constructed as subsidiary or auxiliary lines in thinly populated
districts, with a view to afford some railway accommodation
where it was considered that lines of the standard gauge would
not pay. In some instances abroad long lines of narrow gauge —
3 feet and 3 feet 6 inches — have been constructed as main trunk
lines in newly opened out districts. Some of these have since
been altered to a wider gauge as the traffic developed, and
experience proved that the narrow width of the vehicles was
unsuitable for quick transit, or convenience in the accommoda-
tion of passengers and goods.

(The object in making a line to a narrow gauge is doubtless
to save cost in the original construction ; but when a scheme for
an altered gauge is put forward, it will be well to consider what
amount of advantage or saving would be effected by deviating
from the standard gauge.

If there be almost a certainty that such proposed line will
always remain isolated from all other existing railways of the
standard gauge, then perhaps the selection of gauge may be one
of minor importance, and there remains but the question whether
the description of traffic, and the weights to be carried, can be
worked to any greater advantage, or more economically, by
deviating from the standard gauge.

If, however, there be a fair probability that such proposed
line may at some future time become part of an already
established railway system, it would appear to be more prudent
to make the line to the standard gauge, and effect economies

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 41

by introducing steeper gradients, sharper curves, and lighter
permanent way, and keep down working expenses by using
lighter locomotives, worked at slower speeds.

High speeds are not expected on narrow gauge railways, and
no complaints are made about passenger trains whose highest
running speed does not exceed 20 miles per hour. By conceding
the same indulgence to light railways made to the standard
gauge, great economies might be introduced both in their
construction and working. The similarity of gauge would
admit the transit of the carriages and waggons of other standard
gauge lines, and so avoid all cost and delay in transhipment.
The heavy engines could be kept for the main-line working, and
light engines for slow speeds would serve for the light standard-
gauge lines. As traffic developed, and the train service required
heavier and faster trains, the light rails could be removed, and
replaced by those of heavier section to correspond to the main
line. The similarity of gauge would permit uninterrupted
transit of all vehicles to a common centre for repairs, whereas
the narrow gauge carriages and waggons, being limited to
running only on their own district, must have separate work-
shops for their repair.

When considering the cost of construction and working of
a narrow-gauge railway as compared with one of the standard
gauge, there are certain items which are common to both, and
in which the narrow gauge could not be expected to obtain
any advantage over the standard gauge.

There would not be any saving in getting up the scheme in
the first instance ;

Nor in the Parliamentary expenses ;

Nor in the engineering or carrying out of the works ;

Nor in the station accommodation, waiting-rooms, and offices ;

Nor in the signals and interlocking arrangements ;

Nor in the telegraph ;

Nor in the working staff and train men ;

Nor in the maintenance of the permanent way, as the same
number of men would be required for the inspection and packing
of the road, perhaps more.

Little or no saving could be expected in the bridges under
the railway, as these must be made to the prescribed widths
■and heights, irrespective of the gauge of the railways.

Little, if any, saving could be made in river or stream

42 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

bridges, as the same amount of waterway would have to be
provided in each case.

The same remark applies to culverts and drains.

There would, on the other hand, be a small saving in the
quantity of land to be acquired to the extent of a narrow strip
or zone, represented by the difference in width between the
narrow and standard gauges.

There would also be the same small proportionate saving in
the embankments and cuttings to the extent of the difference in
gauge.

Also a saving in the overline bridges and road approaches in
consequence of less width and height of the opening through
those bridges.

And a saving in the rails, sleepers, and ballast of the per-
manent way, to the extent consistent with efficiency. That
some saving may be effected in these is undoubted, but it is
necessary to exercise caution, and not rush to the opposite
extreme by making the parts too light. A rail should be made
not only strong enough to carry well the engines that have to
pass over it, but it should also be heavy enough to stand the
wear of several years. Narrow-gauge engines must be heavy
in conformity with the loads they have to haul. The same
amount of power must be exerted to haul a hundred tons on a
given gradient, whether the gauge be narrow or broad. In some
cases of narrow-gauge railways the original rails, which weighed
only 45 lbs. per yard, have since been replaced with others
weighing 60 and 65 lbs. per yard. The light 45 lb. rails were
evidently not found to be sufficiently heavy to keep the road to
proper line and level. The result of our everyday practice
seems to prove that there is not only an advantage, but an
economy, in adopting rails of a heavy section, and experience
would therefore indicate that even for a narrow-gauge railway
it may not be expedient to adopt rails weighing less than 65
lbs. per yard.

Gradients. — There are very few localities where the rails on
any line of railway can be laid perfectly level or horizontal for
more than comparatively short distances. By far the greater
portion have to be laid on inclined planes of varying rates of
inclination to suit the general formation of the district traversed,
and the circumstances of the line to be constructed.

The degree, or rate of inclination, of these inclined planes, or

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 43

gradients, may be expressed in various ways. A very general
method is to state the number of feet, metres, etc., which can be
measured along the gradient before an increased rise or fall of
one foot or metre, etc., is obtained. Thus a gradient of 1 in 200
signifies a rise or fall of 1 foot in 200 feet, or 1 metre in 200
metres.

Sometimes the rate of inclination is expressed by stating the
number of feet of rise or fall in a mile. In this way a gradient
would be described as falling at the rate of 30 feet in a mile,
rising at the rate of 20 feet in a mile, etc. Twenty feet to a
mile is equal to 1 in 264.

Another method is to give the percentage of rise or fall. In
this way the inclination would be expressed as a 1 per cent,
gradient, 2 per cent, gradient, £ per cent, gradient, etc., which
for comparison would signify 1 in 100, 1 in 50, and 1 in 200
respectively.

The gradients of a railway most materially influence its
facility and cost of working, and every effort should be used to
make them as easy as possible consistent with the prospect of
the line.

Steep gradients signify heavy locomotives, increased cost of
motive-power, reduced speed, and light loads.

The following tabulated memoranda show the approximate
loads, exclusive of engine and tender, which can be hauled on
the level and on certain inclines at various speeds by engines of
the quoted capacities and steam admissions. A medium-sized,
ordinary type of passenger and goods engine has been selected
for each of the examples. The working of the passenger engine
and train is assumed to be under favourable circumstances, with
fine weather, fairly straight line, first-class permanent way,
modern rolling-stock with oil axle-boxes and perfect lubrication,
and all the conditions most suitable to ensure the least resistance
to the moving load. For the goods engine and train a greater
resistance per ton of load is assumed, as the goods trucks are
never so perfect or easy in the running as the passenger
carriages. A certain amount of side wind is taken into con-
sideration, and also an allowance for moderately sharp curves,
the object being to indicate what may be looked upon as fair,
average, workable loads.

The loads for engines of larger or smaller dimensions, or
higher or lower pressures, may be obtained by working out the

44

• RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

proportion between the tractive force put down in any of the
columns of the tabulated memoranda and the ascertained tractive
force of any other engine under the same conditions of cut-off
and speed.

Assumed cut-off

„ mean effective

pressure, lbs.

„ tractive force, lbs.

Speed in miles per hour

Level ...

• ■ • • • •

1 in 1000

■ ■ ■

>?

800

• • •

»♦

600

• * •

»»

400

• • •

»»

300

• ■ •

»»

250

• • •

»»

200

• • •

»»

150

• • ■

»»

100

• • •

»♦

90

• • • i

>»

80

• • • i

>i

75

• • •

>i

70

• • • ■

V

60

* • ■

»»

50

* ■ • i

»»

40

• • • •

»»

25

• • • ■

PAS8ENGKB ENGINE.

Six wheels, driving and
trailing wheels ooupled,
6 ft. 6 ins. diameter.
Cylinders, 17 ft. x 24 ft.
Looked-down pressure on
safety-valves, 140 lbs. per
square inch. Assumed
pressure at cylinders,
120 lbs. per square inoh.

Weight of engine 89 tons,
tender 24

»»

>»

63

Goods Engine.

Six wheels, all coupled, 4
ft. 6 ins. diameter. Cylin-
ders, 17' ft X 24 ft.
Locked-down pressure on
safety-valves, 140 lbs. per
square inoh. Assumed
pressure at cylinders, 120
lbs. per square inch.

Weight of engine 84 tons,
tender 24 „

*»

58

n

i

4

100

45

8892

5780

15

40

Tons.

Tons.

892

213

707

187

671

181

618

172

533

157

467

143

424

133

372

120

30*

101

217

74

197

—

175

—

164

—

152

—

128

—

101

—

73

—

27

—

56

7192

30

Tons.
358
310
299
285
257
233
216
195
165
123
113
101
95
88
74

76

9760

20

Tons.

623

532

512

482

432

390

361

324

276

208

191

172

163

153

131

107

3
4

100

12844

15

Tons.
907
768
739
695
621
560
519
467
397
302
279
253
240
226
196
163
127
67

Note. — The column loads in tons are exclusive of the weight of engine and tender.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 45

From the above memoranda it will be seen how greatly the
gradients affect the loads. For an important main trunk line,
with a heavy and frequent train-service of passengers and goods,
the introduction of steep gradients would not only reduce the
speed of the train-working, but would probably involve the
necessity of assistant engines over those parts of the line ; and it
may be prudent, where possible, to incur heavier earthworks, or
considerable detours, or tunnels, to obtain more favourable
gradients. For such a line the additional cost, and the extra
distance caused by a detour of a mile or more, will be of far less
importance than the interruption in the train service arising
from a serious reduction in speed or taking on assistant engines.
On many railways abroad there are very interesting examples of
long detours of several miles, carefully studied out to obtain
greater length and easier gradients, resulting in the construction
of lines over which the traffic can be worked without neces-
sitating auxiliary engine-power. On the other hand, there are
situations where steep gradients cannot be avoided, where
certain altitudes must be reached, and where there is no alter-
native but to face the inevitable.

On secondary lines, and short branch lines, where the traffic
is not expected to be heavy, and where speed is not so im-
portant, it may be policy to economize outlay and introduce
steepier gradients than on the main line.

Half a mile of a rather steep gradient is not felt so much
when it is situate midway between two stations, because the
attained speed of the train assists the engine over the short
distance to the summit ; but when it occurs as a rising gradient
out of a station, it forms a great check to the working, particu-
larly in bad or wet weather, when there is the risk of the engine
slipping, and the entire train sliding back into the station.

Long steep gradients not only necessitate increased motive-
power for the ascending trains, but also require increased brake-
power, and precautionary measures for the descending trains.
Where passenger trains are fitted with continuous brakes, the
risk of losing control is minimized ;. but with goods trains com-
posed of waggons, having only the ordinary independent side-
lever brake, it will be found absolutely necessary in many cases
to have additional heavy brake-vans for descending the inclines,
and these special vans, unfortunately, will form so much extra
non-paying weight to be hauled up on the ascending trains. Of

46 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

course, it is quite possible — and, indeed, in many places it is
customary — to pin down some of the side-lever brakes before
commencing the descent, but once pinned down the brakes can-
not be eased or taken off until the entire train is brought to a
stand.

Every goods waggon should be fitted with a brake, and it
would be of immense value if that brake could in all cases be
applied and controlled when the train is in motion.

The American type of long goods waggon, with a four-wheel
bogie-truck at each end, is fitted with a brake very similar to
those adopted on the ordinary horse tram-cars. On the top of
the waggon a horizontal iron hand-wheel, about 18 inches in
diameter, is fixed on to a strong vertical iron rod, which works
in brackets, and extends down below the underside of waggon
framing. One end of a short length of chain is secured to the
foot of the vertical rod, and the other end is connected by light
iron rods to the series of levers which pull on the brake-blocks.
By rotating the horizontal hand-wheel the chain is coiled round
the lower end of the vertical rod, the brake-levers are pulled
over, and brake-pressure applied to the wheels of the waggon.
The brakesman is supplied with a convenient seat and footboard,
and on the floor-level of the latter there is a pawl and ratchet
attached to the vertical rod, which permits the brakes to be
applied to the extent required. The pawl retains the brakes in
position until the brakesman with his foot pushes the pawl out
of the notch of the rachet and releases the brake gearing, which
is at once pulled off quite clear by strong bow-strings attached
to the framework of the bogies.

The type of hand-brake is, perhaps, the simplest that can be
made. The brakesman has merely to put it on, the pawl and
ratchet keep it on, and the bow springs take it off when no
longer required. Each one of these long, loaded goods waggons
becomes a very serviceable brake-van, and for ascending and
descending steep inclines all that is necessary is to take on a
few additional brakesmen to manage the brakes of as many
suitable waggons. These incline brakesmen, after going down,
can return to the summit by the next ascending train, their
small weight being a mere nothing as compared with that of
special or extra brake-vans.

On some European lines it is the custom to sprag some of
the goods waggon wheels when going down exceptionally steep

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 47

inclines, as well as applying the brakes on the ordinary and
extra brake-vans. The sprag is a piece of wood, circular in
section, about 2 feet 6 inches long, and 5 to 6 inches thick in the
middle, tapering off to about 2 inches thick at the ends. When
the waggon-wheel is just beginning to move, the sprag is inserted
between the spokes, and being caught against the waggon frame-
work, the wheel is held fast, and being unable to revolve, remains
fixed, and acts like a skid upon the rails. The skidding of the
wheels upon the rails wears flat places on the wheel tyres, and
it is needless to mention that the practice is only resorted to in
very extreme cases. Although a very primitive means for
checking the speed of a descending train, or for maintaining
vehicles stationary on an incline, there have been many instances
where lives have been saved and accidents prevented by the
prompt use of a few sprags. Solid or close wheels cannot be
spragged, only wheels which have spokes or openings, and for
this reason alone it would be very desirable that in every pas-
senger and goods train there should be some spoke or open
wheels which could be spragged as a last resource, in the event
of a sudden emergency of brakes failing or train becoming
divided on an incline.

On ascending gradients there is always the risk of a coupling
breaking, and the train becoming divided. If the detached
portion left behind be provided with ample brake-power,
hand-brakes, or otherwise, no harm may take place beyond a
little delay ; but if the brake-power be insufficient or defective,
and if all the wheels are solid wheels incapable of admitting
a few timely sprags, then the vehicles cannot be held, but
must slide back, and running unchecked would soon attain
such a velocity as would cause them either to leave the
rails or dash into another train standing at the last station.
Many lamentable accidents have taken place arising from por-
tions of trains breaking away and running back, and the sad
experience of those casualties should call forth every effort to
avert a recurrence in the future. It may not always be possible
to detect a hidden flaw in a coupling, or a defect in the brake-
gearing until the actual failure occurs ; but it is quite possible
to guard against disastrous results from such failure, by pro-
viding means to hold the vehicles, and prevent them sliding back.

For some years the writer had the entire charge of an im-
portant railway abroad on which the gradients were very

48 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

exceptional, and where it was absolutely necessary that he
should organize the most complete precautions to prevent the
possibility of trains, or portions of trains, running back down
inclines. Starting from sea-level, the line, which was laid to the
4 feet 8J inch guage, rose to a summit of over 8000 feet, and
on the mountain division there were many long gradients of 1 in
40, 1 in 33, and in one place a continuous gradient of 1 in 25 for
12 miles. The specially powerful engines reserved for these
heavy inclines were each applied with an ordinary hand-brake,
a steam-brake, and a Westinghouse continuous brake. The
passenger carriages, which were of considerable length, and
carried on a four-wheeled bogie-truck at each end, were all fitted
up with the Westinghouse brake, and in addition each carriage
had its own hand-wheel brake with the pawl and ratchet gear-
ing. All the goods waggons, which were of the American type,
were fitted with hand- wheel brakes similar to those on the
carriages. Special gangs of trained brakesmen took charge of
the trains on these inclines, a brakesman to every carriage or
waggon, and were always in readiness in case of the breakage
of a coupling, or the failure in the Westinghouse brake or brakes
on engine. The immunity from accidents justified the combined
precautions adopted, and proved the possibility of working such
severe gradients with perfect safety.

The long-continued application of the brakes on heavy
inclines naturally leads to the question as to the description of
wheel to be adopted for the work. Not only are the wheels
subjected to very severe torsional strains, but the temperature
at the circumference is raised very high in consequence of the
friction. Perhaps, theoretically, the safest wheel would be one
made out of a solid piece of metal, similar to the chilled cast-
iron wheels of the United States, or the steel disc wheels used on
some lines in Europe, in either of which holes can be left for
sprags. Wheels of this description can withstand very heavy
wear and tear, they are not affected by increased temperature,
and they certainly have the minimum of parts to work loose.
Of the built-up wheels, the strong forged-iron-spoke wheel with
steel tyres shows excellent results, and always gives due warning
of loosening by indications at the tyre rivets. The suddenness
with which the solid wooden centre wheels sometimes break up
and fall to pieces does not commend them for a service where
there must be a long-sustained application of the brakes. The

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 49

increased temperature which expands the tyre, contracts the
wood, and must loosen and weaken the entire wheel.

On all steep gradients the road-bed should be of the most
substantial character, and the permanent way of a strong
description, and maintained in perfect order, as the engines for
working the traffic must necessarily be of a heavy type. The
rails will be severely tested by the pounding and slipping of the
engines on the ascending journey, and by the action of the
brakes on the descending journey.

In the early days of the railway system, rope-haulage was
adopted on some of the main lines for working the trains on
steep inclines near the principal terminal stations. A. powerful
stationary engine, located at the highest point, was employed to
work an endless rope which passed round large drums at the top
and bottom of the incline, and was supported on sheaves or
pulleys fixed between the rails. The connection between the
carriages and endless rope was effected by means of a short piece
of rope called the messenger, which was coiled round the main
rope in such a manner as to be readily detached when the train
reached the summit There are many persons who will remem-
ber the time when the passenger trains were hauled by an
endless rope up the 1 in 66 incline from Euston to Camden
Town, a distance of about a mile and a half, and up the 1 in
48 incline from Lime Street, Liverpool, to Edge Hill, a distance
of about a mile and a quarter, and several others. The rapid
strides made in locomotive construction, and the increased
pressure used in the boilers, enabled much more powerful engines
to be built, until one by one the rope-haulage machinery has
disappeared from nearly all the inclines where for years it had
been considered indispensable. Rope-haulage on inclines is now
very rarely met with, except at collieries and ironworks, where
occasionally the rope may be seen so arranged that the loaded
waggons descending pull up the empty waggons on the opposite
or parallel line.

Curves. — The degree of curvature of a railway curve is
generally expressed by giving the radius in feet, chains, metres,
or other national standard measure.

When laying out a line of railway, the natural features of
the country will necessitate the introduction of curves, and the
question for consideration will be whether they are to be made
of small or large radius. In some cases sharp curves are

£

50 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

inevitable, except by incurring enormous works which would
not appear to offer any corresponding prospective recompense.
In others the curves may be made of easy radius, at a compara-
tive moderate extra outlay, if the character of the line and
description of traffic to be accommodated will warrant the
expenditure. For main through lines, with heavy, high-speed
traffic, it is advisable to have the curves of large radius, so as to
avoid the necessity of reducing speed when passing round them.
Although a high-class fast train may be allowed to run round
an 80 chain (5280 feet) curve at almost unrestricted speed, safety
demands that there should be a reduction of speed on curves of
40 or 30 chains radius, and a very much greater reduction for
curves of 20 chains radius and under. A sharp curve will in
some places form a greater check to fast trains than a length of
moderately steep gradient on a straight line. In the former the
trains running in either direction must slow down for some
distance before reaching the curve, round which they should
pass at greatly reduced speed, and then some distance must be
run before they can attain their full speed again. On the other
hand, with a rising gradient, on a fairly straight line, the acquired
momentum of the train will materially assist in ascending the
incline, and although the speed may be slackened as the train
advances, there may not be any very great diminution in the
running before the gradient is passed, and average level line
reached again. A reduced rate of running must be maintained
round curves of small radius, for, however substantial the works
and permanent way, and however well devised and constructed
the rolling-stock, there is an element of danger ever present
when passing round sharp carves at anything more than
moderate speed. In the great rush for fast through trains this
point is very apt to be overlooked, and too little time allowed
for the running. Even with the fastest trains on any line there
are some portions of the route which must be traversed with
greater caution and less speed than others, either on account of
sharp curves or of gradients ; and if those who are entrusted
with the preparations of the time tables do not possess the
technical information necessary to deal properly with the
question of relative speeds, there is the strong probability that
the programme prepared may be one both difficult and dangerous
to ftdfil. The spirit of rivalry is a strong incentive to fast
running, but prudence and common sense should indicate that

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 51

record speeds should only be attempted on the straight or
favourable portions of the line. There is, unfortunately, the
growing tendency to run faster and faster round the curved
portion of our lines, heedless of the close approach to the limit
of safety, and unless this excessive speed be controlled in time,
the result must be disaster on a very large scale.

A sharp curve leading into or out of a terminal station or
main-line stopping-station does not so much affect the train
running as a sharp curve at an intermediate point between
stations where the train may be expected to run at its maximum
speed* Wherever it is possible it is very desirable to avoid
sharp curves on inclines, because there are times when descend-
ing trains may acquire a considerable velocity, and wheels
tightly gripped by the brakes have not the same facility for
following the curves as when they are running free.

In rugged and mountainous districts sharp curves are almost
unavoidable, except by introducing a series of tunnels ; but in
these districts both the gradients and curves are alike excep-
tional, the speed is necessarily slow, and special precautions are
taken for the ascending and descending trains.

When setting out reverse curves on a main line a piece of
straight line should always be laid in between the termination of
the one curve and the beginning of the other, to allow of a proper
adjustment of the rails to suit the super-elevation adopted on
each of the adjoining curves. In station yards and sidings this
is not so absolutely necessary, the sorting of the carriages and
waggons and the marshalling of the trains being carried on at a
low speed, which does not necessitate any super-elevation of the
rails on the curves. The speed of the train regulates the amount
of super-elevation to be given on any particular curve, and to
ensure smooth and safe running this amount must be maintained
uniform all round the curve. On curves of small radius, guard,
or check, rails are frequently placed alongside the inner rail,
as in Figs. 30 to 33, to check the tendency of the engine to
leave the rails and run in a straight line. For the bull-head
road a special chair is used, which holds both the running-
rail and the check-rail, as shown on the sketch, the rails being
kept the proper distance apart by the web portion in the centre,
which forms part of the casting. For the flange railroad, check-
rails are sometimes made of strong angle irons placed against
the flange of the running-rail, and bolted to the transverse

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 53

sleepers. This method is not nearly so strong or efficient as
the arrangement shown on Fig. 33, with a cast-iron distance-
block about six inches long, placed between the running-rail and
check-rail, and all tied together with a strong through bolt. A
bolt-hole is punched in the edge of the flange of check-rail, and
a crab bolt and clip holds the two rails on the sleeper. The cast-
iron distance-blocks are placed just outside the sleeper, so as not
to interfere with the holding-down bolt. Doubtless these
guard rails do good service, but if the leading wheels of the
engine have sharp or worn flanges there is the possibility that
the wheel, pressing against the high rail, may mount the rail, and
throw the train off the line. A more secure method is to place
the guard outside the high rail, as in Figs. -34 to 38. This can
be done by securing a strong continuous longitudinal timber to
the cross-sleepers — or to the cross-girders in the case of a girder
bridge — with its outer or striking edge protected with a fairly
heavy angle iron. The top of this outside guard above the rail
level may be three inches or more, according to the height of any
hanging spring, or portion of brake apparatus belonging to the
rolling-stock. The distance between the striking-face of the guard
and the outside of head of rail should be about 5 inches, or such
width that before the flange of the wheel can mount on the top of
the rail, the face of the wheel-tyre will be brought into contact
with the striking-face of the outside guard, and thus effectually
prevent the wheel leaving the rail. The sketches show some of
the types applicable to the chair road, and to the flange railroad.
In Figs. 34, 35, and 37, the outside brackets are of heavy angle
iron cut off in lengths to correspond to the width of the sleeper.
In Fig. 36 the cast-iron chair is lengthened, and has an end
bracket to support the guard timber. In Fig. 37 a hard wood
bolster is fastened on the top of each sleeper, and on this is
placed the continuous guard timber. This method of increased
security is frequently adopted on girder bridges and long iron
viaducts which are on the straight, and in such cases it is
usual to place the guards outside each of the rails forming the
track.

The introduction of bogie engines and bogie carriages has
conduced largely to the safe working of the train-service over the
curved portions of many of our home railways, as well as to the
economy in the wear and tear of permanent way and rolling-*
stock. The action of long rigid wheel-base vehicles passing

54 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

round sharp curves is detrimental to all the parts brought into
contact. Not only is there the constant tendency to mount the
rails, and spread the gauge, but the tiny shreds of steel scattered
all along close to the rail — particles ground off the rails, or off
the wheel-tyres, or both — testify to useless wear, unnecessary
friction, and great waste of motive-power.

The gradual increase of accommodation and conveniences in
the carriage stock of European railways led to the gradual
increase in the length of the vehicles. The six- wheeled carriage
superseded the four-wheeled carriage, on account of its increased
steadiness when running, but the introduction of long sleeping-
cars, dining-cars, and corridor cars necessitated some better
wheel arrangement than the ordinary six-wheel type could
supply. The six wheels had been spread as far apart as was
admissible for carrying weight and passing round curves, and
something had to be done to meet the demand for still longer
carriages. Many of the six -wheeled carriages at present running
on our own home lines have a fixed wheel-base as long as 22 feet,
and with this length the horn-plates must ' undergo a very
considerable strain when adapting themselves for the passage
round curves of small radius. On a curve of 15 chains radius
(990 feet) a chord of 22 feet will have a versed sine or offset of
0*73 of an inch, and on a curve of 10 chains radius (660 feet) an
offset of 110 of an inch. Fortunately, curves of the above small
radius are not very numerous on our main lines ; but wherever
they do occur, the conflict between the long fixed wheel-base
rolling-stock and the permanent way must be very severe to
both. Several descriptions of eight- wheeled carriages have been
tried on our home lines ; but the system which is now mast in
favour is the ordinary bogie truck, which has been in use for so
many years on all American railways. A bogie truck is really a
short carriage frame complete in itself, with its wheels, springs,
and brake appliances, and is attached to the under side of the
carriage body by a central pivot, round which the truck can
swivel or rotate sufficiently to adapt itself to the curved portions
of the line. With a bogie truck at each end of a long carriage,
the vehicle will pass as easily round curves as on the straight
line, side pressure, or grinding against the rails, is obviated, and
friction is reduced to a minimum. The bogie truck may consist
of four wheels or six wheels, according to the length and weight
of the carriage to be supported.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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56 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Figs. 39, 40, and 41 show sketch elevation, plan, and trans-
verse section of one pattern of four-wheel bogie truck largely
adopted in American carriage stock, and although there are other
types varying in detail, the general principle remains the same
in all. The diagram sketch (Fig. 42) represents the two bogie
trucks slightly swivelled to adapt themselves to the curve round
which the carriage is supposed to be passing.

For carriage or waggon stock with an independent bogie
truck at each end, the central pivot and swivelling motion
supply all the freedom that is requisite ; but for locomotives it is
necessary to provide for lateral as well as for swivelling move-
ment. The driving and trailing wheels — and sometimes one or
two other pairs of wheels — work rigidly in the frames, and as the
normal position of the centre of the bogie truck must be in the
centre line of the engine for the straight line, it is evident that
some appliance must be introduced to allow the truck to move
laterally when the engine has to traverse the curves.

Figa 48, 44, and 45 give sketch elevation, plan, and transverse
section of a swing-link bogie truck as applied to an ordinary
American locomotive. Its recommendations are its simplicity,
its efficiency, and its accessibility for inspection and lubrication.
The swing-links, which provide for the lateral movement, are
direct acting, and do not require any side springs of steel or
indiarubber. All the principal parts of the bogie are visible,
and not mysteriously cased in with plate-iron boxwork.

In the sketches several minor details are purposely omitted,
and only sufficient particulars shown to explain the method of
working. The under side of the upper centre plate which carries
the cylinder castings and smoke-box end of boiler is cup-shaped,
and fits into an annular groove or channel in the lower centre
plate, which is suspended from the framework of the truck by
the four swinging links. Practically the entire carrying and
swivelling work of the bogie truck is effected by the annular-
groove casting moving round the cup-shaped casting, and the
centre pin is merely passed down through each to guard against
the risk of the one lifting out of the other from sudden shock or
derailment.

The lateral movement of the truck is obtained by means of
the four swing-links. When the engine is on the straight road
the centre line of the bogie is on the centre line of the engine,
and the links hang in the positions shown on the sketch, inclined

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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58 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

towards the centre ; but upon entering a curve they come into
play, and allow the truck to move out sideways to the right
or left, according to the direction of the curve, the one pair of
links assuming a flatter angle, while the other pair approach
nearer to the vertical, the extent of side movement depending
on the amount of the curvature. When the engine enters the
straight line again, the bogie truck resumes its central position.

The Bissell truck consists of one pair of wheels connected
to a triangular framework, as shown in Fig. 46. The axle-boxes
are attached to the side of the triangle which lies parallel to the
axle, the other two sides terminate in a circular ring which
works round a centre pin fixed to the engine. These two sides
are practically the radii of a given circle, and permit a large
amount of lateral movement, which can be controlled by placing
suitable stop-pieces to limit the side play to the extent desired.

Radial axle-boxes have been tried on the engines of some
railways. In the best types the opposite boxes are braced
together by a diaphragm, or plate-iron framework, to ensure
that both boxes work together. The curved faces of the horn-
blocks, in which the radial axle-boxes slide, are struck from
a centre taken at some point to the rear of the normal centre
line of the axle, and stops are placed at proper distances to
control the extent of lateral movement. Although the advocates
of radial axle-boxes may urge some points in their favour, there
are few engineers, if any, amongst those who have had practical
experience of both systems, who would for a moment claim for
the radial axle-box anything but a modicum of the many
advantages obtained by the four-wheeled bogie truck.

As one of the principal functions of a four-wheeled bogie
truck for an engine is to act as a path-finder, or guide, to the
other wheels which constitute the fixed or rigid wheel-base
portion of the machine, it follows, therefore, that the full benefit
of the bogie truck can only be obtained when it is placed at the
leading, or front, end of the engine. In this position the bogie,
with its swivelling arrangement and smaller weights, is the
first to pass over the rails, and in doing so shapes the course
and prepares the way for the easy running of the heavier wheel
weights which have to follow. When the bogie truck is placed
at the rear end of the engine, its action is restricted to affording
lateral movement only, and the driving and coupled wheels have
to force or pound themselves round the curves in a jerky,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 59

irregular manner, as compared to their smooth running when
following the leading or guiding influence of a bogie truck
in front.

The wheel-base of a four-wheeled bogie truck for an engine
should always be greater than the gauge of the line over which
the bogie has to travel. On the 4 feet 8£ inch gauge some of
the best results have been obtained with bogies having wheel-
bases varying from 6 feet to 7 feet. Where the wheel-centres have
been less than 6 feet, the running has been found to be much
less steady than with the wider spacing; and where the wheel-
base is not more than the gauge, there is a tendency for the
bogie to catch, or lock, when passing round sharp curves.

CHAPTER II.

Works of construction: Earthworks, Culverts, Bridges, Foundations, Screw piles,.

Cylinders, Caissons, Betaining walls, and Tunnels.

Earthworks. — Under this heading may be classified cuttings and
embankments of earth, clay, gravel, and rock.

When setting out a line and adjusting the gradients, an
endeavour is usually made to so balance the earthworks that
the amount obtained from the cuttings may be sufficient to form
the embankments. With care, this may be effected to a consider-
able extent ; but there will be places where the material from
cutting is unavoidably in excess, and others where the cuttings
are too small, or contain good rock, or gravel, which can be
more advantageously used for building and ballasting purposes
than for ordinary embankment filling. Or there may be a
large cutting which will provide enough material to form three
or four of the adjoining embankments; but the distance, or
lead, as it is termed, to the far embankment may be so long,
and, perhaps, on a rising gradient, that it would be cheaper to
run the surplus cutting to spoil, and borrow other material
for the far embankment from side cutting or elsewhere. A
long lead adds materially to the cost and time of forming an
embankment, as it not only necessitates a considerable length
of service, or temporary permanent way, but also occupies-
much time in the haulage of the earth waggons. For distances
of half a mile and upwards, a small locomotive is more suitable
than horses for conveying the waggons.

To run to spoil is the term applied to such of the material
from a cutting which, not being required or utilized in the
formation of the line embankments, is removed and tipped into
mounds, or 8poil-bank8, in some one or more convenient sites
near the mouth of the cutting. Sometimes the surplus material
is disposed of by increasing the width of the embankments.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 61

Material excavated in a tunnel, and hoisted through the shafts
to the upper surface, has to be deposited in spoil-banks along
the centre line of the tunnel.

To borrow material to form an embankment is the term
used when the earthwork filling is not obtained from the cuttings
on the line. This borrowing is generally done by excavating
a trench on each side of the line, of such width and depth as
will supply sufficient material to form the embankment. Fig.
47 gives an example of an embankment thus made from side
cutting. In some cases a piece of high ground adjacent to the
embankment can be utilized for obtaining a portion, or even
the whole of the filling.

Increased material is sometimes obtained by widening the
cutting, or flattening the slopes, or both.

The degree of slope of a railway cutting must be regulated
by the nature of the material excavated. A slope of 1£ to 1,
which gives for every foot of vertical height a width of one foot
6 inches of horizontal base, as in Fig. 48, is usually adopted
for cuttings in ordinary earth, good clay, sand, or gravel There
are some descriptions of strong clay and marl which will stand
at a steeper slope, even at 1 to 1 ; but, on the other hand, there
are some kinds of clay which must ultimately be taken out to 2
to 1, and even 3 to 1.

It frequently occurs that the slopes of a clay cutting, taken
out to 1£ to 1, appear to stand well for a time, but after exposure
to the frost and rain of one or two seasons, the material becomes
loosened, and forms into slipping masses, which slide down on to
the line, stopping all traffic, and have to be cleared away before
train operations can be resumed.

Cuttings through solid rock may be taken out to a slope of
J to 1, as shown in Fig. 49, provided the material is compact, and
there is not too great a dip in the strata or rock-beds. Where
the rock-beds lie at a considerable angle, the slope on the high
side will have to be made flatter than the slope required on the
low side, as shown in Fig. 50, and great care must be taken to
remove from the high side all loose or disconnected pieces of
rock which might come away and slide down on to the line.

Strong dry chalk will generally stand at a slope of £, or J to 1,
but when wet and mixed with flints it will be necessary to in-
crease the slope to not less than f to 1. Where the rock is loose
and disintegrated, a slope of not less than £ or J to 1 will be

62

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. , 63

required, and at many points there will be detached threatening
masses of rotten rock which must be cleared away to a much
flatter slope for safety. In cuttings of this description it is
frequently found necessary to clear out a portion of the loose
pieces of the lower cavities and build in their place a facework
of masonry to support the superincumbent rock. Springs of
water rising in the rock, or running over any part of the rock
slopes, must be properly provided for, and conducted to the
nearest channel. They should be carefully watched during the
winter season, when the frost, acting on' the water penetrating
the crevices, splits and separates large pieces which were pre-
viously firm and secure.

Instances will occur where a cutting has to be made through
a thick bed of rock and several feet of soft loose strata under-
neath. The effect of forming a cutting through the soft strata is
to induce the heavy bed of rock above to squeeze or force out
the softer material below, and unless proper means were taken
to avert such a disturbance, the entire cutting would have to be
excavated to a very flat slope. The method adopted in such a
case is to build strong face-walls of masonry, brickwork, or con-
crete, underneath the rock, as shown in Fig. 51, with strong
inverts placed at short distances. Suitable arrangements must
be made to take away the drainage water which will collect at
the back of the walls, and weeping-holes or outlets must be left
in the lower part of the walls to convey the water into the water-
tables on the line.

Where there is a depth of earth cutting on the top of the
rock, the earth should be cut away so as to leave a bench or
space of 3 or 4 feet between the edge of the rock cutting
and the foot of the earth slopes, as shown on Fig. 52.

In cases of shelving rock, with earth or clay on the top, as
shown in Fig. 53, it is frequently found necessary to remove the
whole of the clay on the high side to prevent the possibility of
its sliding off the rock on to the line below.

In large cuttings it is usual to push forward a gullet of
sufficient width for one or two lines of waggons, as shown in
Fig. 54. When this has advanced some distance, strong planks
or half balks of timber are placed across the gullet, and the sides
or wings of the cutting can be excavated, the material wheeled
to the gullet, and tipped from the barrows into the waggons
beneath. By this arrangement the work can be carried on very

■64

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 65

expeditiously, as one set of men can be engaged advancing the
gullet and laying the track, while others are following up
and taking down the sides. A large number of waggons can
thus be filled in a day, and a small locomotive kept fully
employed.

Occasions will arise where the material from a large cutting,
situate on a continuous gradient, as in Fig. 55, has to be carried
in both directions to embankment.

In wet weather, or if the cutting is at all wet, it would be
almost, if not quite, impossible to carry on the excavation at the
upper end to the proper formation level. The water would
collect at the lower level, and not having any means of escape,
except by pumping, would stop the work. In such a case the
best way is to take out the cutting at the upper end to a slight
rising gradient, as shown in the sketch, sufficient to carry away
all water, and afterwards take out the lower portion in the work-
ing from the other end of the cutting.

Gases will arise where it will be necessary to make a shallow
cutting through boggy peaty ground. If the boggy material be
very soft, and its thickness from the formation level to the solid
ground below be not great, it may be advisable to remove this
extra thickness down to the hard lower bed, and fill in up to
formation level with strong material. If, however, the bog or
peat be too thick to justify its entire removal, it should be
excavated say down to two feet below formation level, and a
thick layer of branches of trees and strong brushwood closely
laid and packed the full width of the road-bed. On this prepara-
tory foundation must be placed good clean ballast to carry the
permanent way. Two or three extra sleepers should be allowed
to the rail length, and in some instances it will be necessary to
introduce two, or even four, rows of strong longitudinal timbers
— half balks — under the transverse sleepers. The object of all
this extra timber is to obtain a large increase of bearing area on
the soft yielding surface of the boggy material. Notwithstand-
ing these special precautions, the trackway will sink down a
little during the passage of an engine or train, but will generally
return to its former level. Good side drains or water tables
should be formed at each side of the cutting to take away all
rain and surface water.

In all cuttings it is desirable to have the line of formation on
a slight gradient, sufficient to carry away all rain water or spring

F

66 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

water which may be collected in the water tables; but more
particularly bo is this necessary in a rock cutting, where the
material, being non-absorbent as compared with earth or gravel,
requires that all drainage must be carried away to the mouth of
the cutting.

In carrying out railway embankments and road approaches,
it is usual to form the sides to a slope of 1£ to 1, as shown on
Fig. 56. Occasionally the cuttings produce material which
might stand at a rather steeper slope, but considering the effects
which might afterwards be produced by heavy rains falling on
the sides, it is more prudent to adopt the flatter slope of 1J to 1.
Some descriptions of clay will not stand at the above slope, but
require a slope of 2 to 1, or even 3 to 1.

When proceeding with the earthworks, it is customary to
first remove and lay aside a layer, say 9 inches in depth, of soil
and earth from the seat of the embankments and top widths of
the cuttings, to be used afterwards in soiling the trimmed and
finished slopes of the cuttings and embankments. This soil being
removed, the actual work of the excavation can be commenced.
The working longitudinal section will give all the necessary
particulars as to position of the mouths of the cuttings and the
depths at the various chain pegs, and the top widths of the
cuttings can be ascertained by calculation, if on even ground, or
from the cross-sections if on side-lying ground, according as the
material may be earth, clay, or rock.

For facility of carrying on the works, reliable bench marks,
or reduced level stations, must be established at convenient
distances along the route of the line, and from these and the
fixed chain-pegs the correct line of formation level can be
checked from time to time as the work proceeds.

For ordinary earth or clay cuttings, the usual tools are
picks and iron crow-bars for loosening, or getting the material,
and shovels for filling into barrows, carts, or waggons. For
heavy earthworks, steam excavators are now largely employed.
Great improvements have been made in this class of machinery,
in the way of perfecting the method of excavating lifting, and
filling the material into the earth-waggons.

In nearly all rock cuttings the greater portion of the material
has to be taken out, or loosened, by blasting with gunpowder,
dynamite, or other explosive. The number and extent of the
charges will depend upon the nature of the rock and its

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 67

stratification, and also on its position as regards proximity to
buildings or residential property.

Where the rock is loose, or disintegrated, the pieces can
generally be readily separated by picks and bars without
having to resort to any great extent of blasting.

The first of the material excavated in the cuttings is generally
conveyed in wheelbarrows to form the commencement of the
adjoining embankments. When the wheeling distance becomes
too far for economical barrow work, ordinary carts or three-
wheeled carts, sometimes termed dobbin carts, are brought into
operation where the cuttings and embankments are light ; but
where the earthwork is heavy, both in excavation and filling,
a service or temporary road of light rails and sleepers is usually
laid down to carry strong tip earth- waggons. For moderate
distances these waggons are hauled by horses, but for distances
over three-eighths of a mile a small locomotive is more speedy
and economical. Fig. 57 shows one form of dobbin cart; the
wheels are made with good broad tyres, so as not to sink too
deep into the soft ground, and the body being attached to the
framework by a pivot or trunnion on each side, can be readily
tilted over, and the earth tipped out, by releasing the holding-
down catch. Where the ground is soft and wet, or of a very
loose sandy nature, the work of hauling these dobbin carts is
very heavy on the horses, and in such cases it soon becomes an
advantage to lay down a service road of rails and sleepers. This
service road is formed of light rails manufactured for the purpose,
or old, worn rails no longer fit for main-line work, spiked down
on to rough transverse wooden sleepers. The end of the
embankment in course of formation, and where the earth is
being tipped, is termed the tip head. Two or more roads are
required at the tip head to form the embankment to its full
width. Fig. 58 gives a sketch plan of a service road near the
tip head. The width is shown as for a double line. The
earth-waggons are hauled along the line from the excavation,
and brought to a stand at the point A. If a locomotive has
drawn the waggons, it is then detached, moved forward, and
shunted back into the siding B C. A horse accustomed to
tipping then takes one full waggon at a time over one or other
of the two turn-outs, DEF or DGH, to the tip head, sufficient
impetus being given to the waggon to run the front wheels off
the ends of rails on to cross-sleepers laid close, with a steep rise,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 69

and backed up with earth. This suddenly checks the frame of
the waggon, and the body containing the excavated material
revolves on its trunnion, tilts up, and shoots out the material
well forward, so that the man in charge of the tip head, who
also knocks up the " tail-board catch," is able to level off the
filling without assistance. The empty waggon is then hauled
back, and turned into the siding BC, and another full waggon
taken forward and tipped, until all the waggons of the rake are
emptied. Ten waggons generally form a rake when the work is
pushed forward vigorously, each waggon holding about three
tons. The tip-head horse pulls the waggon by a trace-chain
having a spring catch at the end, by which the driver releases
the horse at the right moment. It is very important that this
spring catch should be kept in good order, because occasionally
too much impetus is given to a waggon, which, running over the
tip head down the slope, would drag the horse with it if the
spring catch did not act properly. Qood firm foothold must be
provided for the tipping horse.

The tip head should never be carried across culverts or
bridges until they have been well backed up, and protected by
a thick covering of earth or clay, wheeled in with barrows to. an
equal height on each side of the masonry, so as to prevent
undue side pressure.

Fig. 59 gives a sketch of one form of end-tipping waggon.
In some cases the wheels are made of cast-iron, but as these are
readily broken during the rough handling to which earth-
waggons are exposed, it is questionable whether the light
wrought-iron wheels, with light steel tyres, used on some works,
are not more economical in the long run. The framework and
body are made of strong undressed timber, well bound and
bolted together. The tail-board catch keeps the body of the
waggon in its proper horizontal position while loading or
running, but when released leaves the body free to tilt up, and
to revolve on the front trunnion by means of the circular clip A.
The same principle is also applied to side-tipping waggons
which are used for the widening of embankments, or formation
of platforms and loading-banks.

The permanent way of these service roads is generally made
as simple as possible. A pair of movable rails are used instead
of switches, as shown in Fig. 60. These rails are linked together
by iron tie-rods, and pulled or pushed over into position for one

70 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

or other of the roads by means of the handle at A. A stout
iron pin, or iron clamping-plate, serves to retain the rails in
position during the passing of the waggons. In a similar
manner, a short rail working on a pin, or pivot, is made to
answer the purpose of an ordinary crossing. The rails are laid
complete and continuous for the one road, and for the second
road the outer rail is laid sufficiently high to cross over the rail
of the first road. A piece of rail is then secured by a centre pin,
or pivot, to the cross-sleeper, as shown on Fig. 61. This pivoted
rail is pulled over into the position shown by the dotted lines,
to allow the passage of waggons on the one road, or pulled
across to the end of rail at B, for waggons to pass on or off the
other road. In the latter case an iron pin or clamp serves to
keep the pivoted rail in position. As these service roads are
merely laid down on the soft loose material brought forward for
filling, they require constant packing and lifting to prevent
them working into depressions, which might cause the waggons
to leave the rails.

To indicate the height of the embankment filling, strong
stakes or poles must be firmly set in the ground at each chain-
peg. On each of these poles two cross-bars must be fixed, the
lower one placed to the correct height of the embankment, and
the upper one to show the amount allowed for subsidence. The
excavated material, as brought from the cuttings, is in a soft,
loose condition, and an allowance must be made for its settle-
ment, or subsidence, as the embankment becomes consolidated.
This allowance will, of course, depend on the height of the
embankment and the quality of the material, but for ordinary
earth and clay it is customary to allow about one inch to the
foot of height, which is equal to about 8 per cent.

When forming embankments over very side-lying ground, it is
necessary to cut steps in the sloping surface on which the filling
material has to be placed, as shown in Fig. 62. These steps give
a hold to the new earthwork, and check the tendency to slide
down the hillside.

Embankments have frequently to be carried over ground
which is low, soft, and wet, but not boggy. If the culverts and
drains are sufficiently large, and properly arranged, these places
are not likely to cause much future trouble.

For a thoroughly soft deep bog, however, it is most diffi-
cult to make any accurate calculation as to the amount of

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 71

embankment filling which will be necessary to form a permanent
foundation for the line ; and the construction of a high heavy
embankment across such a place is one of those undertakings
which every engineer is most anxious to avoid. A large quantity
of material may be tipped into the bog, and seem to stand fairly
well for a time, and then suddenly disappear altogether. More
material has to be brought forward, and will mast likely dis-
appear in a similar manner. The filling material being heavier
than the bog on to which it is thrown, falls through, and
displacing the soft semi-liquid matter, continues to sink down
lower and lower until it is stopped by a harder stratum under-
neath. In a measure the operation somewhat resembles the
tipping of earth into a lake ; the material will go down until it
meets with a solid bottom, and in going down it assumes its own
natural slope, and forms for itself a width of base corresponding
to its height. It will be readily understood what an enormous
amount of filling material will be swallowed up in following out
such a process. On a very soft bog, say 20 feet in depth, over
which an embankment 20 feet high has to be formed, the extent
of the actual earthwork filling will very probably closely
approach the outline shown in Fig. 63. The upper portion,
ABCD, representing the embankment proper, will contain
about 133 cube yards to the yard forward, whereas the lower
portion, CDEF, which has displaced the soft boggy matter,
will contain about 266 cube yards to the yard forward, or, in
other words, the filling which is out of sight will be double the
filling which is in view above the section ground line.

Apart from the large amount of filling consumed in forming
this semi-artificial island, the progress of the work itself is very
perplexing. A long length of the bank may have been raised
again, once or twice, to the proper height, and may have carried
rails and earth-waggons for some weeks, and then sink all at
once several feet. The sinking, too, may not be uniform, but may
produce fissures, depressions, and separation of the earthwork
which will necessitate much care when bringing forward fresh
filling material. The bog may not be of the samQ consistency
throughout, there may be some layers of harder material, such as
imbedded trunks of trees, and these may sustain the filling for a
time, and then yield under the increasing weight of the super-
incumbent mass. Even when the embankment is finished
throughout, and shows no sign of sinking, it should be very

72 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

carefully watched for a long time for any indication of further
movement.

When the bulk of the material has been taken out of an
earth or clay cutting, the work of trimming the slopes should
be put in hand, so that any surplus left on the wings, or sides,
may be removed, and carried away before stopping the earth-
waggons. The angle of slope having been decided, a battering
rule of light wooden boards is made to correspond to the slope,
and in form similar to that shown in Fig. 64. A plumb-bob is
suspended from a fixed point, A; the lower end, B, is then
held against a peg or mark which indicates the correct level and
width of the cutting at the place, and the upper end, C, is raised
or lowered until the plumb-bob string coincides with the vertical
line marked on the rule from A to D, and the plumb-bob rests
steadily in the space cut for it at D. With this battering rule a
length of seven or eight feet, according to the size of the rule, is
first trimmed to the correct slope, and by continuing the applica-
tion of the rule up the side, a correct slope line is obtained from
bottom to top of slope at that place. By repeating the process
at convenient distances along the cutting, a series of correct
slope lines are obtained, and the intermediate space can readily
be trimmed to correspond.

The same form of battering rule and method of working is
applicable for trimming the slopes of the embankments.

When the slopes of the cuttings and embankments have been
trimmed, vegetable soil, which has been laid aside, or reserved as
previously described, should then be spread evenly over the
slopes to the uniform thickness of not less than four inches,
and the whole sown with good grass seeds to form a strong
sward.

The trimming, soiling, and sowing of the slopes not only
gives a more finished appearance to the earthworks, but the,
strong grass, when once well grown, binds the surface together,
and helps to resist the injurious effects of heavy rains and
melting snow.

There are many places abroad where a neat finish to the
earthworks is considered quite a secondary matter, or where it
would be difficult to obtain suitable soil to spread on the slopes.
The earthworks are hurried forward to allow the iron highway
to be laid down as quickly as possible, the slopes of the cuttings
and embankments are only roughly trimmed, and nature is left

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 73

to supply such grass or vegetation as may spring up, or be self-
sown.

The fencing in of a line of railway serves the double purpose
of defining the boundary of the company's property, and of
forming a barrier for the prevention of trespass of persons and
animals on to the line. For our home lines, fencing is com-
pulsory, and the same obligation exists on many foreign railways.
In our colonies, and out in the far West of the United States,
and in newly opened out countries, fencing, except near towns
and villages, is rather the exception than the rule ; people and
animals roam at will from one side of the railway to the other
wherever they find a convenient crossing place, and the cow-
catcher of the engine has to be depended upon for throwing
aside any animal which may be standing, or resting, on the line
of rails at the passing of a train.

The description of fence will be influenced by the locality,
and the materials conveniently obtainable. Where stone is
plentiful, perhaps brought forward out of the cuttings, and
labour cheap, a masonry wall will be found a most suitable
permanent fence. Any fence to be of service should not be less
than four feet high. A wooden post and rail fence is much in
favour in some districts, the posts being firmly set or driven into
the ground, and four or five stout bars nailed on to, or set into,
the upright posts. This fencing does not last very long, the
pieces are small in size, and soon fail from decay. Quick or
hawthorn hedges, when fully grown, make a good fence, but
require careful attention to prevent gaps being made by roving
cattle. They also require constant trimming and cutting. The
quicks are generally planted in a mound formed by cutting a
continuous ditch, or gripe, as shown in Fig. 65. The ditch
serves as a drain to take away water running down the slopes
of the embankments, small openings in the mounds, or drain
pipes through them, forming leaders to conduct the water to the
ditch or gripe. The outer edge of the ditch represents the
boundary of the railway property, unless specially arranged
otherwise.

Galvanized iron-steel wire fencing, if not made too light, is
strong and durable, and very easily kept in order.

The wires may be secured to strong wooden posts, which
should be creosoted, and not placed too far apart, or to iron posts or
standards of angle iron or tee-iron section. The straining-posts,

74 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

whether of iron or timber, must be stronger than the inter-
mediate posts, firmly fixed into the ground, and well stayed,
to withstand the pulling and tightening of the wires. There
are many places where a quick fence would not grow, and where
the ground is too soft to carry a wall In such cases a good
galvanized- wire fencing will fulfil all requirements. The strand
wire is better than the plain wire, as its method of manufacture
necessitates the use of a superior material, and it is easier to
straighten and keep in good order. An extra strong fence is
often made of six, eight, or more rows of round rod-iron secured
to wrought-iron uprights of bar-iron or tee-iron.

In hot countries abroad an excellent fence is obtained by
planting a species of cactus or aloe in a similar manner to the
quick fences at home, and as shown in Fig. 66. These cactus
plants are readily obtained, are very hardy and quick in growth,
and with their large spike-shaped leaves form such an almost
impenetrable barrier that few animals will attempt to pass.

Road approaches to bridges over or under the line, or to
public road level crossings, may be fenced in the same manner
as the line proper. If quicks are adopted, it will be necessary
to put up a light wooden fence also to protect the young plants
until they are well grown. Near towns and villages it is
frequently found advisable to adopt a specially strong wooden
fence, or close-boarded fence, where the approach is an embank-
ment, and too newly made to carry a wall.

Gates for farm or occupation level crossings may be made of
wood or iron. As a rule, iron gates are preferred, as they can be
supplied at the same cost as wood, and are very much more
durable. Gates for public road level crossings have to be so
placed that they will either close across the railway or across
the road ; their length will therefore depend upon the width and
angle of the road crossing. It is better to make these gates of
wood, so that, in the event of a train running through them,
there may be less risk of injury to life and rolling-stock than if
they were made of iron. For footpath crossings, small gates,,
wickets, or stiles may be adopted of such form as may be found
most suitable for the requirements.

Culverts and Drains. — Before proceeding with the formation of
the embankments, it is necessary to construct the culverts and
drains which will be covered over by the earthworks. Any
existing drains which may be of too light a description must be

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 75

reconstructed in a more substantial manner. It is a simple and
comparatively inexpensive matter to rebuild a drain before the
earth filling is brought forward, but it is a costly work to open
out an embankment, and rebuild a culvert afterwards. Unless
the seat of an embankment is well drained and kept free from
the accumulation of running water, the earthwork will be
exposed to washing away of the lower layers, and consequent
subsidence. Each watercourse or open drain must be provided
for either by a separate culvert of suitable size or, as may be
done in some cases, by leading two or more watercourses into
one, and thus passing all through one culvert of ample capacity.
When fixing the sizes of the culverts they must not be limited
to the normal flow of water, but a large margin must be allowed
sufficient to meet extraordinary floods. The depth of the bed or
invert of a culvert is a very important point. If laid too high,
and the stream above should at any time deepen, the high invert
would check the flow of the water, and would also incur the risk
of being undermined and gradually carried away. If, on the
other hand, the invert be laid too low, it will gradually silt up
to the level of the stream-bed alongside, and there will be so
much of the culvert space lost for all practical purposes. In
cases when the invert of a culvert has to be laid at a special low
depth to allow for future improvements in drainage, it is advis-
able to give extra height from the invert to the crown, or top, so
as to provide ample waterway in the event of any silting up in
the mean time. Particular care should be taken when building
the foundation of a culvert. It has to be laid on the site of the
watercourse, or on a new channel which will ultimately form
the watercourse, and it should be built sufficiently deep into the
ground to avert as far as possible the chance of water finding a
course through below the foundation.

The invert may be of stone pitching or brick if the current
is not rapid, or liable to bring down stone boulders from its
gravelly bed.

With a stream-course having considerable fall, and which
carries with it large stones, roots of trees, and other debris, the
invert should consist of strong pitching, composed of large-sized,
rough-dressed stones of hard, durable quality, capable of with-
standing the pounding of the boulders brought down during
floods. A soft description of stone would be quite unsuitable
for the invert of such a stream ; the pitching would wear away

76 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

quickly, break, and become detached, leaving the foundation and
side walls exposed to the cutting inroads of the water.

Where large flat bedded stones or flags of tough quality can
be obtained, they form good covers, or tops, for culverts up to
two feet in width. They should have not less than nine inches
bearing on the side walls, and their contact edges should be fairly
dressed, so as to fit sufficiently close to prevent the embankment
filling from falling through.

Where the stream, or run of water, is very small, strong
earthenware pipes, 9 inches or 12 inches in diameter, well bedded,
may be sufficient to carry away all the water likely to arise.
For small springs in low swampy ground, dry stone drains may
in many cases be used with advantage. These are made by
cutting a trench, say two feet deep by twelve or eighteen inches
wide, in the seat of the embankment from side to side, and filling
it up with dry rubble stones, not boulders, hand-laid, the upper
layer placed on the flat to keep the earthwork as much as
possible from filling in between the stones.

In soft boggy ground, where the depth to a hard bottom is
very considerable, wooden culverts are frequently adopted.
Although these cannot be classed as permanent structures, still,
when they are made of sound well-creosoted timber, and substan-
tially put together, they last for a number of years. Sometimes
they are made cylindrical in section — a species of elongated cask
with strong iron hoops every few feet Others are rectangular
in section, made with two strongly trussed side frames connected
and covered with cross-planking and longitudinal tie-planking
on the top and bottom.

Wooden culverts are seldom made of very large size, rarely
exceeding an opening of 3 feet, and it is considered preferable to
use two of these culverts of moderate dimensions than one of
large size. Figs. 67 and 68 give sketches of wooden culverts
of cylindrical and rectangular section, and Fig. 69 of flag top
culverts of 12-inch, 18-inch, and 2-foot openings. In masonry
culverts the side walls are shown to be of rubble stonework, but
brickwork can be used instead, provided the bricks are well
burnt, hard, and capable of withstanding the action of the
water.

In Figs. 70 and 71 are shown types of arch -top culverts of
4 feet and 6 feet span respectively. The arch portion is shown to
be of brick, which, as a rule, is cheaper than stone rings, which

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78 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

must be cut and dressed to suit the small radius of the arch.
The side walls may be of brick of good quality. Occasionally
they are built of concrete. The wing walls may either be
carried out in the direction of the stream, as in the sketch of
the 6-foot culvert, or they may be built transverse, as shown
on the 4-foot culvert, whichever arrangement is found to work
in the best for the case in question.

For arch culverts on very steep side-lying ground it is better
to build the arch-top in steps, as shown in Fig. 72, instead of
forming it parallel to the invert, or slope, of the stream-course.
The level portions of the arching give a better hold for the em-
bankment than could be obtained on a long inclined surface of
brickwork or masonry.

The writer has built a large number of culverts of this type
for mountain streams on steep hillsides, and has found them to
prove satisfactory in every way.

In embankments alongside tidal rivers, or across the corners
of estuaries of the sea, culverts have frequently to be so con-
structed that they will permit the passage of the drainage water
from the land, or high side, without admitting the tidal water.
This can be arranged by placing at the lower end of the culvert
•close-fitting hinged-flap valves opening outwards. When the
tide has gone down the weight of the fresh, or land, water
-swings the flap-valve sufficiently open to allow of a free
passage ; and, on the other hand, when the tide rises, the
pressure of the water against the face of the flap-valve keeps
it tightly closed, and prevents ingress of the salt water.

Culverts are sometimes fitted with lifting-valves or doors,
which can be raised or lowered to serve irrigation purposes.
The door, which works in guides, is made sufficiently heavy to
fall with its own weight, and the raising is effected by means of
a, screwed suspension-rod working in a well-secured fixed nut.

In cases of soft or treacherous ground, timber-piling or wide
bed-courses of cement concrete are necessary to form firm
foundations for culverts. Drains and streams which are inter-
sected by a railway cutting have to be dealt with according to
their size and their height above the finished rail level The
water from a small drain or field spring may be conducted in
pipes down the slope of the cutting into the water table, or side
drain, at formation level, and will be thus carried away to the
lower level at the entrance of the cutting. In many cases

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 79

streams can be diverted, and the water led away to some lower
point without the necessity of actually crossing the railway.
With a large stream, where it is essential that the water should
be conveyed across the line and continue on its ordinary course,
it may be carried over in iron pipes or iron trough if there is
ample headway, or in iron syphon pipes where the height is not
sufficient. The iron pipes or trough can be supported on masonry
or brick piers, or cast-iron columns, the height from the rails to
the underside of the conduit being not less than that adopted
for the over-line bridges.

Occasionally the pipes can be carried across on an over-line
bridge, either by placing them under the roadway or on small
brackets outside the parapet.

With the syphon arrangement the iron pipes must be laid
down the slopes of the cutting and under the road-bed of the
permanent way. The pipes must be continuous, strong, and
firmly connected at the joints to prevent leakage. The inlet
and outlet ends of the pipes should be securely built into
receiving-tanks of masonry, brickwork, or concrete, to ensure
an uninterrupted flow of the stream, and also to prevent any of
the water from percolating through under the pipes and on to
the railway. As a precautionary measure, it is well to place
iron gratings some little distance in advance of the syphon
pipes to intercept and collect any brushwood, straw, or other
things which might be brought down with the stream.

Fig. 73 gives an example of the syphon arrangement as
constructed with two cast-iron pipes placed side by side.

Railway works carried out in cities and large towns, whether
they take the form of cuttings, embankments, arching, or
tunnels, are certain to cause a very considerable disturbance of
existing drains, corporation sewers, gas-pipes, water-mains and
underground telegraph wires. Some of these underground
works may be so peculiar and complicated as to necessitate a
slight deviation from the course originally intended for the line.
Suitable provision will have to be made for each of the items
interfered with by the railway, and the substituted work must
be carried out to the satisfaction of the constituted authorities
within the municipal boundaries.

Bridges. — Amongst the many bridges and viaducts which have
to be built during the making of a railway, those constructed
over rivers and waterways are generally the most important.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 81

The bridging across any navigable river or tidal water can only
be effected in compliance with conditions imposed by the
authorities controlling the navigation rights. These conditions
will place restrictions as to the number and distance apart of
the piers, as well as the height from high water level to the
under side of the arches or girders. For rivers having a constant
traffic of sea-going vessels of large tonnage and lofty masts the
authorities will demand great height or headway as well as
large spans ; and if to this be added a deep water-way and bad
foundations, the work to be constructed becomes one of consider-
able magnitude. The banks of the river must be carefully
studied to find the most favourable point for crossing, and in
some cases it may be prudent to make a detour of two or three
miles. The crossing at a great height involves the construction
of the approach lines at a great height also. If the river is in a
deep valley with high sloping sides the natural contour of the
ground facilitates the formation of the approach lines ; but with
a river on a low, wide, open plain, inclined approach lines add
enormously to the cost of construction, as well as to the cost of
permanent working.

If the number of sailing craft passing up and down the river
be moderate, and, perhaps, only passing at high water, the
authorities may permit a low-level viaduct with an opening
bridge.

There are thus the two systems: the high-level viaduct,
which allows trains to pass over and vessels to pass under at
any and all times, and the low-level viaduct with opening bridge,
which, if open for vessels, is closed for trains, or vice versa.

Every crossing of a navigable river will have to be considered
and dealt with according to its own individual requirements.
An arrangement suitable for the one may not be admissible or
prudent for the other. A frequent and important train service
might be much interfered with by an opening bridge, and, in
a similar manner, an opening bridge might cause much inter-
ruption and detention to the navigation of the vessels on
the river.

Where a low-level viaduct with opening bridge can be
adopted, there will be a very great saving of expenditure ; and
there are numbers of such viaducts in existence, accommodating
a large railway and river traffic without inconvenience. Even
with a low-level viaduct the height from water-level to the

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82 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 83

under side of the girders of the various fixed-spans will generally
be sufficient for the passage of barges and small craft, leaving
the opening portion to be used by the larger vessels.

The principal openings for these large river viaducts are
generally constructed for girders, partly on account of the
greater facility of girder work for large spans, and also for
the advantage of having one uniform height, or headway, from
pier to pier.

For a high-level viaduct across a deep-water river, the cost
of the lofty piers forms a very important part of the under-
taking. Each pier will require its own cofferdam, caisson, or
other appliance for obtaining a suitable foundation. The deeper
the water, the more costly the arrangement for foundation ;
and the higher the pier to rail-level, the greater the amount of
material in the construction of the pier. The consideration
of these two points will at once show that it is very desirable
not to have more of these costly piers than is actually necessary,
and in studying out the design it will be a question for
calculation how far the spans may be increased so as to dispense
with one or more piers.

In every work of this description there is a relative pro-
portion between span and height, which will give the most
economical result from a cost point of view; the proportion
varying according to the depth of the water and description of
ground for foundations. An increase in the span will naturally
necessitate an increase in the thickness of the pier ; but where
a cofferdam, or arrangement for putting in the foundations, must
in any case be made, a small addition to its width may not
necessarily form a large increase to its cost.

Figs. 74, 75, 76, and 77 are sketches of high-level railway
viaducts which have been constructed with great height, or
headway, to allow large vessels to pass under at all times without
interruption. This description of work is very costly, not only
in the deep-water foundations, but also in the heavy scaffolding
and appliances requisite for building piers and girders at such
an elevation above the ground-level. The hoisting of the
material alone forms an important item where such vast number
of pieces have to be lifted to a height of 80, 90, or 100 feet.

Figs. 78 and 79 are sketches of low-level viaducts constructed
with one large opening span, or swing-bridge, for the passage
of vessels. The girders and roadway of such opening span are

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 85

usually constructed as a compact framework, which revolves on
a centre placed in the middle of a circular roller path or species
of turn-table. The portions of the rotating opening bridge,
although not always the same length on each side of the centre-
pin, are generally very carefully balanced, to preserve the
equilibrium of the entire mass when swinging round for the
passage of vessels. To ensure stability in working, and steadi-
ness during heavy gales, a liberal diameter should be given to
the roller path of all swing-bridges having large span and
great weight.

Lattice, or truss, girders are preferable to plate girders for
swing-bridges of considerable opening, as they present less
surface area to the action of the wind.

The opening and closing of these bridges is effected by wheel-
gearing actuated by hydraulic, manual, or other motive-power.
The revolving machinery should be set solid and true, well
protected from the weather, and, at the same time, readily
accessible for constant inspection, lubrication, or repair.

Figs. 80 to 85 are sketches of various types of railway
bridges constructed for smaller openings across narrower rivers,
water-ways, or canals. Fig. 80 is an example of what is known
as a bascule bridge. This particular bridge is made in two
halves, meeting in the centre of the span, the tail end of each
half being provided with heavy counterweights to assist in
opening or tilting up the bridge for the passage of vessels, or
lowering it down for railway traffic. Each half of the bridge
swings on horizontal axles, and the raising or lowering is effected
by means of hand winches or other motive-power, actuating
wheel-gearing working into toothed vertical segments attached
to the tail end of each half. The same principle has also been
applied to bridges having only one leaf to tilt up to clear the
passage way.

Railway bridges of this pattern are now very rarely adopted*
They have the great drawback that when raised to the vertical
position, a very large area is presented to the action of the
wind, and this defect might lead to very serious consequences
in the case of a bridge situated in an exposed locality. An
open-work floor diminishes the wind area, but a very large
surface must necessarily remain.

Fig. 81 illustrates what is known as a traversing bridge.
In this case the width of the opening passage-way and the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 87

adjoining span are made the same, and the girders for the two
spans are constructed in one continuous length. By means of
gearing attached to the fixed portion of the work, the continuous
length of girder, with its roadway, is first slightly raised or
lowered, and then drawn back on rollers sufficiently far to leave
the opening span quite clear for the passage of vessels. A
reverse movement of the gearing causes the movable girders
and roadway to travel back and return to their original position
ready for the train traffic

Opening bridges are sometimes constructed on this system
in cases where the level of the rails is only a few feet above the
level of the water, and where there is only one water opening,
and that not more than 20 to 30 feet wide. In such bridges
the movable portion is rolled back along iron rails, or plates
secured to masonry walls, or strong pile-work. This class of
bridge is cumbersome, slow to move, and is now but very rarely
adopted.

Fig. 82 shows a type of simple lift bridge, of which there are
but few examples remaining. In this particular bridge the
girders and roadway form a solid framework, which rests on
the abutments during the passage of the trains. Strong chains,
secured to the corners of the framework, pass over large sheaves
on the top of the iron standards, and then round drums placed
below the level of the rails, and terminate by attachment to
heavy counter- weights suspended in iron cylinders. The counter-
weights are adjusted to approximately balance the bridge, so
that a moderate power applied to the wheel-gearing on the
drums is sufficient to raise the roadway to the required height.
This class of opening bridge is only suitable for the passage of
barges and small craft without masts; and it requires the re-
adjustment of the counter-weights when the roadway varies
in weight, in consequence of rain or repairs.

Figs. 83, 84, and 85 are sketches of small svAng-hridges
constructed for narrow waterways. Although differing in
appearance, they are all practically on the same principle,
with centre pin and roller path, and are similar in general
arrangement to the large-size-opening swing-bridges shown in
Figs. 78 and 79.

The 8tcmigr-bridge arrangement is so simple in construction,
convenient for inspection, and easy to maintain, that where
possible it is now generally adopted in preference to any other

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 89

system. The weights on centre pin and roller path may be
distributed as considered most expedient, and by means of
suitable appliances the weight may be altogether taken off
the centre and rollers when the bridge is closed for the passage
of trains.

There are many wide rivers which, although not navigable
in the ordinary acceptance of the term, nevertheless require
bridges of large spans to provide free waterway for the floating
down of rafts of timber. Away in the high ground, in the
timber-growing districts, trees are felled, sawn or cut into long
poles, logs, or scantlings, and hauled to the banks of the river.
The timbers are then formed into large rafts of the most
convenient form for floating down to the place of distribution
or port for shipment. Even with old experienced floaters, using
their long sweeps in the most skilful manner, it is difficult to
take anything but a very irregular course down the stream.
Under the most favourable circumstances one of these large
rafts is an unwieldy, awkward craft to manage ; but in a river
full of twists and turns, with reaches varying from comparative
smooth water to miniature rapids, the current carries the huge
mass surging along, and only a clear, unobstructed channel will
enable its navigation to be carried out with safety. The
presence of a pier in the main waterway might cause destruc-
tion to the rafts and loss of life to the men. The vested
interests in floating rights are tenaciously guarded, and no
new bridge would be sanctioned which would in any way
interfere with the waterway or endanger the passage of rafts
down the river. Bridges of this description are much less
costly than those over deep water — navigable rivers. Excepting
the large spans, the rest of the work is comparatively simple.
The water is generally shallow, and much reduced in quantity
during the summer months. Good foundations can generally
be obtained without going to any great depth. The headway
may be kept low, or of such height as may best suit the
purposes of the railway, and be sufficiently well up out of
the way of the floods which may take place from time to
time on the river.

Fig. 86 is a sketch of a bridge constructed over a river much
used for rafting purposes. The large span is over the main
channel, and the small spans are over a wide gravelly foreshore,
which is only covered with water during exceptionally high

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floods in the autumn or winter. No rafting can be carried
on when the river is in flood ; the current would be too strong
to permit of the raft being kept under control.

Fig. 87 is a sketch of a similar bridge where the river is
confined to a regular channel between two sloping banks of
strong clay.

Fig. 88 shows a bridge erected over a narrow rocky pass
in the river. The channel is hemmed in by the almost per-
pendicular sides of mountain granite, there are no banks to
overflow, the flood waters cannot spread laterally, however
much they may Increase in depth, and with building-stone at
hand in abundance, and foundations formed in the solid rock,
the situation is one of the most favourable for a strong per-
manent bridge. The cast-iron arch of 150-feet span has a
graceful appearance, and harmonizes well with the surrounding
scenery. A small masonry arch at each end of the bridge
provides for communication along the banks of the river.

With rivers which are neither under the control of naviga-
tion authorities nor used for rafts of timber, there is much
greater freedom for the designing and oarrying out of bridges
or viaducts suitable for the actual physical conditions of the
locality. The headway will be guided only by the height of
the railway to be carried across, and by any flood-water levels
which may affect the work. The size of the spans will be
regulated by the width of the river, the depth of the water,
and the nature of the ground into which the piers have to
be built. For broad, shallow rivers with good firm river-beds,
piers may be built at moderate cost, and comparatively small
spans adopted; on the other hand, with a broad deep river
it will be better, as previously explained, to reduce the number
of piers and increase the span. In the one case, for example
a river 150 feet wide may be crossed with three spans and
two piers in the shallow water, as in Fig. 89; in the other
it may be more prudent and economical to cross in one span,
without any intermediate pier, as shown in Fig. 90.

Next in importance to the large bridges and viaducts over
rivers are the viaducts which have to be constructed for the
crossing of deep inland valleys. The occurrence of one of these
deep valleys between long lengths of average table-land renders
necessary either a series of cuttings and falling gradients to
get down to a low level, or the erection of high-level works

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 93

to continue onward the rail-level at the height already attained.
A decision to adopt the latter course brings forward the con-
sideration as to the method of carrying out the work. To
form a high embankment across such a valley would entail
an enormous expenditure for earthwork, and several openings,
or bridges, would have to be made in the embankment for
streams, rivers, and roadways. Instead, therefore, of making
this part of the line entirely of embankment, it is usual to
carry the earthwork forward until the height is about 25 or
30 feet, and to form the remainder of the opening of arching,
as shown in Fig. 91.

This arrangement is not only less costly than an embank-
ment of such height, but has also the great advantage that
any or all of the arches are available for the passage of streams,
rivers, roads, and accommodation works.

The character of the work to be carried out in the con-
struction of bridges or viaducts over rivers or valleys must
greatly depend upon the description of materials at command.
Where good building-stone is plentiful, and the price of labour
moderate, works of masonry should be adopted as far as
practicable. Brickwork is an excellent substitute for masonry,
provided that specially selected bricks are used for all facework,
or parts exposed to the weather. For water- washed piers and
abutments, the lower portion should be faced with good hard
stone.

Bridges and viaducts consisting of arches of masonry or
brickwork form the most substantial and permanent works of
construction for railway purposes; once properly built, the
expenditure on future maintenance or repairs is merely nominal.
For viaducts the span of the arching must be regulated by
the height of the viaduct. The greater the height the larger
the span. In one case 30-feet spans may be suitable, whereas
in another it may be more economical to introduce spans of
60 feet or more, and so reduce the number of lofty piers. From
a cost point of view there is, however, a limit to the span
of arching, and, except for special cases, where expenditure is
of secondary importance, large spans are very rarely adopted.
Arches of large spans, no doubt, have been built both in masonry
and brickwork, and have been a complete success in every
way except expense. Unfortunately, the quantity and weight
of materials in arching, and the corresponding cost, increase

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 95

very rapidly as the span increases, and for openings of more
than 60 or 70 feet girder-work becomes much cheaper than
arching.

Figs. 92 and 93 are examples of viaducts having piers of
masonry, with girders to carry the roadway. In the one case
the roadway is carried on the bottom flange of the girders, and
in the other on the top. The latter arrangement affords greater
facility for securely bracing the girders together, while for the
former it is claimed that the girders form a massive parapet,
which would serve as a protection in the event of an engine or
vehicles leaving the rails.

In the early days of railways, many large viaducts were con-
structed having masonry piers, and timber trusses to carry the
roadway. Much ingenuity was displayed in designing the
trusses, and in the introduction of cast-iron joint-shoes and
wrought-iron bracings. Many of these wooden superstructures
served well for several years, but they were always exposed to
the imminent risk of destruction from fire, and however care-
fully the logs may have been selected, the decay of the timber
was only a question of time. The deterioration of one piece was
equivalent to the weakening of the entire truss, and the renewal
of any part was both difficult and costly. The shrinkage of the
timber, and the working at the joints, caused the trusses to
deflect considerably under a passing load, and although the
actual strength of the structure may not have been much im-
paired, the creaking and depression had anything but a reassur-
ing effect Timber superstructures for anything but small
spans are rarely adopted now, except for temporary works, or on
lines abroad, where the transport on girder-work would be very
costly, and where good timber is very cheap and abundant.
Even in the latter case the wooden superstructure is generally
looked upon as a temporary expedient, to be replaced at no very
remote date with iron or steel girders, when the materials can
be conveyed over the entire completed line.

Figa 94, 95, and 96 are sketches of three types of timber
trusses as constructed in viaducts of several spans.

There are many localities, especially abroad, where suitable
stone is most difficult to obtain, and very expensive to work and
convey. In such cases it is compulsory to use as little of it as
possible, and to resort to iron or steel both for the girders and a
large portion of the piers. The piers may be made of cast-iron,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 97

wrought-iron, or steel, of suitable form and arrangement to
ensure strength and stability. Not only must the piers be
strong enough to carry the weight that may be brought upon
them vertically, but they must have sufficient width of base to
ensure lateral steadiness. The design should admit of facility
of erection, with a minimum of scaffolding, and the pieces should
be of convenient length and weight for transport The lower
length of river piers, or portion liable to be in contact with
flood- water, should be of solid masonry, to resist the action of
the water, or of any d&yns brought down by the current. More
than one fine viaduct has been swept away for want of due
attention to the latter precaution.

Fig. 97 illustrates a type of pier composed of cast-iron
columns, well braced and stayed with wrought-iron. The ends
of the columns and all contact surfaces should be properly
turned and faced by machinery to ensure true and perfect joints,
and thfe socketed ends should be turned and bored to fit
closely. The latter is important, and if not carefully carried
out, a slight sliding movement of the flanges may take place,
and throw undue strain on the bolts.

Fig. 98 shows a very similar pier, constructed entirely of
wrought-iron or steel

Each of the above-described piers has a liberal amount of
taper or batter, both in the front and transverse elevation.

The size and number of the columns, and the dimensions of
the braces or stays, will depend upon the height of the pier and
the weights and strains to be sustained.

Many important and lofty viaducts have been erected on this
principle of iron piers springing from masonry foundations,
more particularly across deep rugged ravines abroad, where iron
piers offered the only practical, substantial means of dealing
with what appeared otherwise an impossibility.

Fig. 99 is a sketch of the Einsua Viaduct on the Erie Bail-
way, one of the highest railway viaducts in the United States.
In the transverse elevation the piers have a large amount of
taper ; but in the front elevation they are vertical, and of width
to correspond to one of the small spans of the main girder. This
arrangement of long and wide base gives great stability to the
pier. The spans of the girders, which are of the ordinary lattice
type, are not large, being 61 feet for the clear spans, and 38 feet
6 inches for those over the piers. The principal interest is in

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the great height and simplicity of the piers. The rail-level over
the top of the pier is 301 feet above the level of the water in the
Kinsua stream. The width of this pier on the top is 10 feet (for
single line), and the width at the bottom 103 feet.

Fig. 100 is a sketch of the Loa Viaduct on the Antofagasta
Railway, Bolivia, stated to be the highest railway viaduct in the
world. The arrangement of spans and piers is very similar to
the Kinsua Viaduct. The main spans are 80 feet, and the pier
spans 32 feet. The width of the pier on the top is 10 feet
G inches (for single line), and the width at the bottom of the
highest pier is 106 feet 8 inches.

In contrasting these light iron piers with what would have
been required if constructed of masonry, an idea may be formed
of the enormous amount of material, labour, and time, which
would have been expended to erect the work in stone.

Before the principle of lofty iron piers had been thoroughly
developed, many high piers had been built of timber both at
home and abroad. More particularly was this the case in the
United States of America, where the presence of magnificent
timber close to hand offered special inducements for the use of
wood. Like a mammoth scaffolding, each pier was constructed
with a most liberal supply of material, judiciously selected and
carefully put together, but the danger of destruction by fire waa
ever present from the beginning. Probably more timber piers
and bridges have been destroyed by fire than have been removed
on account of natural decay.

One of the most notable of these timber-pier constructions
was that of the Old Portage Viaduct, on the Erie Railway,
U.S.A. Fig. 101 is a sketch of one or two of the piers. This
viaduct was more than 800 feet long, and 234 feet high from the
bed of the river to the rail-level. The spans were 50 feet each.
Masonry piers were carried up to about 25 feet above the ordi-
nary water-level of the river, and upon these the timber super-
structure was erected. Each timber pier consisted of three
complete sets of framework, securely connected together, and
also well stayed and braced to the adjoining piers. This viaduct
was destroyed by fire in 1875, and was reconstructed with piers
and girders of iron.

Railway bridges over or under public roads of primary or
secondary importance must be constructed to the widths and
heights prescribed for such works in the fixed regulations of the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 103

country in which they have to be built. As a rule, these road-
bridges are simple and inexpensive in character, except in towns,
or in cases where the line crosses the roads very obliquely, or
where the road is situated at the top of a deep cutting, or bottom
of a high embankment. Away from towns and out in the open
country, permission is generally obtained to divert the roads to
a moderate extent, so as to obtain a more favourable angle and
height for the bridge; but in towns, where the roads become
streets, sometimes of great width, with houses and shops on each
side, little or no diversion can be allowed.

A railway passing through a portion of a densely populated
town must deal with the streets as they exist, as any great
alteration in their course or continuity would involve a large
destruction of property. With careful laying out it is possible
to obtain favourable crossings for many of the streets, but a
number of others must be crossed obliquely, and these oblique
crossings very frequently result in a span twice the width, or
even more, of what would be necessary to cross the street on the
square. Bridge-work in towns is more costly than in the
country, as a higher class of work is demanded, more finish or
dressed work in the masonry or brickwork, and more ornamenta-
tion in the screens and parapets in connection with the iron
girder-work. The work itself has to be carried on in a confined
locality, with limited space for materials and appliances, and
where the thoroughfare must be kept open.

Where the height is sufficient, and suitable materials readily
obtained, it is preferable to adopt an arch bridge, as being of a
much more permanent character than girders.

Fig. 102 is an example of an ordinary over-line arch bridge to
carry a public road over a double line of railway in a cutting of
moderate depth.

Fig. 103 shows a somewhat similar over-line arch bridge, but
its height from rail to road-level being greater, side arches are
introduced in preference to long heavy wing walls.

Fig. 104 shows an over-line arch bridge in a rock cutting.
In this case, by increasing the span and forming the springing
bed in the solid rock, the masonry of abutments and wing walls
may be reduced to a minimum.

Fig. 105 is a sketch of an ordinary under-line arch bridge
to carry a railway over a public road in an embankment of
moderate height.

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Fig. 106 shows a similar under-line bridge, but with curved
instead of straight wing walls.

Fig. 107 is an example of an under-line arch bridge in a
rather high embankment, and where side arches have been
adopted instead of long wing walls.

The above six types are equally applicable for private roads
crossing the railway, but, as previously mentioned, a lesser width
and headway will be accepted for under-line bridges for private
or occupation roads, than for public roads. For the over-line
bridges, however, the width and headway will be regulated by
the number of lines and standard height of the railway.

When these arch bridges have to be built on the skew to
suit an oblique crossing of the road, extra care will be necessary
in setting out the work, and marking on the centering the spiral
courses of the arching.

Arch bridges may be built of masonwork or brickwork, or a
combination of the two. If the available quarries do not yield
good flat bedded stones readily worked, it is better, where
possible, to use strong hard bricks for the arching, and utilize
the stone for the remainder of the work.

Although arching undoubtedly forms the most durable type
of bridgework, numbers of cases occur where the available
height or space between rail-level and road-level is too small, or
the cost of masonry and brickwork too great, to admit of any-
thing but girder- work. Detailed sketches of some of the many
forms of girder bridges are given in Figs. 132 to 153, illustrating
various systems of roadways and parapets. In some instances
the main girders are made sufficiently deep to serve as parapets,
while in others a shallower girder has been adopted, on top of
which has been placed a light cast-iron parapet composed either
of close plate-work or of ornamental open railings. The open
ironwork parapet has a good appearance, but as a screen is not
so efficient as the close cast-iron plates.

In addition to the bridges required for the regular public
roads, it is usually necessary to construct a certain number of
occupation or private road bridges over and under the line to
accommodate portions of estates and large properties intersected
or severed by the railway, and which would be inadequately
provided for by ordinary gate crossings on the level The
position and description of these occupation bridges is generally
matter of private arrangement. The bridges will be somewhat

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. in

similar in character to the public road bridges, but of much less
width for the roadway. Those over the railway must have the
standard span and height adopted as a minimum for the other
over-line bridges, and those under the railway must have the
full width on the top for the lines of rails, but will have less
width between the abutments for the roadway.

Foundations. — So much depends upon the soundness and
security of the foundations of any bridge, viaduct, or large
building, that it would be almost impossible to devote too much
care to the selection and treatment. Unless the foundation be
firm, the entire structure will be exposed to the risk of failure,
either in subsidence of masonry, giving way of arches, or
depression of girders. A small matter overlooked during the
construction of this part of the work will be most difficult to
correct or adjust afterwards.

The insistent weight of all structures built of masonry or
brickwork will cause the mass to settle to a certain extent,
according as the joints of mortar or cement become compressed
by the number of superincumbent courses. In a similar manner
the gravel and clay of a foundation will compress more or less
according to its compactness and the weight of the structure.
No inconvenience will, however, arise if the settlement or com-
pression be uniform throughout the. entire area.

In ordinary average, dry, solid ground, a good foundation
can usually be obtained at a moderate depth. The removal of a
few feet of the surface layers will generally lead to a good hard
stratum of natural material sufficiently firm to carry the abut-
ments and piers of railway bridges and viaducts. Two or more
footings are usually adopted so as to distribute the weight over
an increased area, as shown in Fig. 108.

Where the weight to be carried is considerable, it is better to
increase the number of the footings, and give them a smaller
projection, as in Fig. 109, rather than have a lesser number and
greater projection, as in Fig. 108. There is greater liability of
fracture of the material in the latter than in the former.

Care must be taken to distinguish between made ground and
natural ground. Hollows which have been filled in must not be
relied upon to sustain heavy weights ; the material may have
been consolidating for years, but it is safer to cut through it
and found upon the natural stratum beneath.

Soils of a clayey nature must be dealt with very cautiously.

12 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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If the ground be fairly level, and the material firm, a solid
foundation may be obtained, but the excavated portion should
be covered up as quickly as possible to prevent any decomposing
action taking place upon exposure to the open air. The
expansive nature of some clays must be carefully kept in view,
so as to guard against any disturbance in the finished foundation.
There are some descriptions of shale which when first opened
out appear to have the solidity of hard rock, and yet, after a few
days' exposure to the atmosphere, are changed to the consistency
of soft mud.

Sand, being composed of such small particles, is almost incom-
pressible, and makes an excellent foundation so long as it can be
retained in its position. Little or no settlement will take place
if the sand remains undisturbed, but so soon as it comes under
the influence of running springs, or underground drainage, the
fine particles of the sand will be gradually but surely carried
away with the water, and the entire foundation be undermined.
The opening out of a neighbouring excavation, or the carrying
out of some low-level drainage, would endanger a construction
which otherwise would be solid and permanent.

In many cases of soft ground, more particularly abroad, sand
piles have been adopted and have given very good results. The
system is carried out by first driving a large wooden pile down
through the soft material into the more solid stratum below.
The timber pile is then carefully withdrawn and the cavity
filled with clean sand. The number and distance apart of these
sand piles will depend upon the nature of the ground and descrip-
tion and weight of structure to be carried.

Clean, compact gravel* is one of the best materials to build
upon, being almost incompressible and quite unaffected by
exposure to the atmosphere. It is easily excavated and levelled
off to the surface required.

A foundation of rock may be considered in the abstract as
the most solid base to be obtained, but it must be treated
judiciously, and a proper surface secured. The outer portion of
many descriptions of rock consists of blocks or layers of stone
partially or entirely separated from the main bed, and these,
lying in a loose condition, are deceptive and treacherous as a
foundation base. The exposed rock should be carefully examined,
and all detached or outlying pieces or layers removed before
placing any foundation course. Special care must be paid to all

1

ii4 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

shelving rock, and a level seating cut into it for the entire width
of the foundation, as shown in Fig. 110.

A thick bed of concrete, as in Fig 109, makes an excellent
foundation course. When firmly set it becomes one solid
massive base from end to end, and prevents the yielding or
dropping of masonry at any intermediate points.

There are many places in soft, wet ground where instead of
attempting to excavate all the soft material down to a harder
stratum, it is better to adopt timber pile foundations, as shown
in Fig. 111. The size of the piles and their distance from centre
to centre must be regulated by the description of material into
which they have to be driven and the weight they have to
sustain. Double waling pieces should be properly checked and
bolted on to the heads of the piles, and trimmed or levelled off to
receive a double floor of thick planks. The spaces round the
heads of piles and walings should be filled in and levelled up to
under side of flooring, with cement concrete.

For bridges of moderate span, over soft ground or over shallow
fresh water, strong cast-iron screw piles can be adopted with
great advantage. Fig. 112 shows a very usual form of screw
pile, made with an external screw at the lower end and with a
sharp cutting edge to facilitate penetration into the ground.
The upper portions are made in suitable lengths, and all to one
pattern and template, for convenience in carrying out the work.
The screwing into the ground is generally effected by means of
a capstan or cross-head fixed to the top of the first working
length of pile, and which is pulled or turned round by ropes
worked from stationary windlasses. In some cases long bars
or levers are attached in radiating positions to the capstan-head,
and a number of men are employed to walk round and round,
pushing the levers, and in this way screwing the pile into the
ground. As the pile goes down the capstan-head has to be
removed, and additional lengths bolted on, until the pile enters a
solid stratum, or is considered deep enough for the duty it has
to perform. The last or top length has generally to be cast to a
special length to bring the work up to the exact height to receive
the girders. The core of excavated material passes up into the
interior of the pile, and in some cases becomes so compressed or
tight as to require the use of an internal augur to remove a
portion of it to enable the screwing to proceed. The pile shown
in Fig. 112 is one of a number which were successfully screwed

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

"5

4

a i k^,

TTTT

-FioJte-

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9 ■*.

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e

■ HI

/

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u6 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

into the ground to depths varying from 42 to 48 feet. A.
toothed or serrated edge, as in Fig. 113, is sometimes given to
the lower edge for screw piles which have to cut their way
through a hard stratum.

All bolting flanges should be accurately turned and fitted to
ensure close, parallel surfaces when bolted together.

The joint shown at A, Fig. 112, is one the writer has used to
a large extent for the bolting flanges of cast-iron screw piles and
cylinders. It is very simple in form, readily coated with white
lead to ensure a water-tight joint, and as the upper length is
practically recessed, or let into the lower length, the exact
continuity of the different castings is secured.

Solid screw piles of wrought-iron or steel, similar to Fig. 114,
are used for some descriptions of work. These are generally
made in long lengths, in sizes varying from 4 to 8 inches in
diameter, and with screw blades of wrought-iron or cast-iron
fixed in the most secure manner to resist the strain produced
when screwing into the ground. The couplings for these solid
piles must be very carefully made, all contact surfaces truly faced
and fitted, bolts turned, and bolt-holes drilled.

Fig. 115 is a sketch of a hollow cylindrical water-jet pile,
which has been used successfully in cases of light sand. The
lower end of the pile is made externally in the form of a solid
disc, terminating in a conical point, having an aperture in the
centre to correspond to the water-jet. To the top of the pile is
secured a tight-fitting cover through which a tube passes from a
force pump. Water at high pressure is pumped into the tube,
and as it forces its way out through the conical point the sand
is stirred up and loosened, and thus allows the pile to descend.
When the pile has been lowered to a sufficient depth the pumps
and tube are removed, and the sand settles down into its former
compact condition.

Great care must be used with the first two or three lengths
of any screw pile to ensure the pile taking a correct or true
vertical position. Each series of screw piles should be properly
braced together to obtain stability under moving loads.

Hollow cylinders of cast-iron, wrought-iron, or steel form
most efficient foundations or piers for large bridges over soft
ground or fresh water of considerable depth. Made open at the
bottom, and constructed of complete rings, or, if of large diameter,
of rings built up in segments and securely attached together

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

m^~cD cr?

i i

I II il in:

■ . ■,:■ ■ ». ' »■.>»*. . i ■ ■■ g-» «;k *

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 119

with water-tight joints, the cylinder is placed in its proper
position on the ground or lowered into the water prepara-
tory to sinking. The lower length is made with a sharp
cutting edge to facilitate penetration. By excavating and
removing the material round the cutting edge and base inside
the lower length, the cylinder descends gradually either from
its own weight or by assisted weights, and length after length
is added until it is sunk to the depth required. The excavated
material is filled into buckets and hoisted to the surface by a
winch fixed on the top length. When sinking in water the
working top of the cylinder is always kept at a suitable height
above the water for convenience in removal of the earth or clay
from the interior to barges or gangways alongside.

Some strata are more favourable for cylinder sinking than
others. Material of a strong clayey nature admits but a small
amount of water into the excavation, and a moderate-sized
pump will keep the working fairly dry until considerable depth
has been reached. Some other materials are so open that the
water cannot be kept down with ordinary pumps, and the
cylinders can then only be lowered by the pneumatic process.
This process has been carried out in two methods, one of them
on the vactmm principle, and the other by air pressure, or, as
it is termed, the plenum system. With the former method
the cylinder is placed in position, and an air-tight cap, through
which a pipe passes, is secured on the top. Powerful air-pumps
are then set to work, and the partial vacuum thus created in the
interior causes the material round the cutting edge and base to
be loosened and drawn into the cylinder, the cylinder at the
same time going down or sinking by its own weight, or assisted,
if necessary, by added weights. The cap is then taken off, and
the material removed from the interior, the operation of exhaust-
ing and emptying the interior being repeated until the cylinder
is sunk to its proper depth. This method has been found to
work well in strata which contained a large proportion of clay
to assist in excluding the air and water, but was not nearly so
successful when applied to material containing stones and large
boulders.

The plenum process is based on the principle of the diving-
bell, the water being prevented from entering at the bottom by
keeping the cylinder full of compressed air. An air-chamber, or
air-lock, with perfectly air-tight joints, is securely fixed to the

120 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

top or upper working length of the cylinder, and no access can
be obtained to the interior of the cylinder without passing
through this air-lock, which has one lower door or valve opening
into the cylinder, and an upper door opening out into the open
air. Temporary inside staging is formed by putting planks across
from flange to flange, and placing short ladders on these landings
for the use of workmen descending or ascending. The excavated
material is hoisted by a winch, generally placed on the landing
just under the air-lock. The air-pump is placed in some con-
venient position outside, near at hand, the pressure-pipe passing
through the air-lock into the interior of the cylinder. Air is
forced into the cylinder to a pressure sufficient to drive out and
keep out the water from the interior, and allow the workmen
free access for excavating the material round the cutting edge
and base of cylinder. The amount of pressure required will
depend upon the depth of the working below the level of the
water alongside. Men accustomed to the process can work with-
out much inconvenience under a pressure of 20 to 22 pounds per
square inch, equal to a depth of 45 to 50 feet ; but when the
pressure exceeds 25 pounds, the duty becomes very trying, and
is attended with considerable risk. Instances are recorded of
men working at depths of 105 and 110 feet, necessitating a
pressure of over 45 pounds per square inch; but it is very
questionable whether the men exposed to such a severe ordeal
were not permanently affected, if some of them did not actually
succumb.

It will sometimes occur that, after sinking through soft porous
strata to a considerable depth, a layer of clayey material is
penetrated sufficiently retentive to keep out the water and per-
mit of the removal of the air-lock and the completion of the
sinking as an open-top cylinder.

When working on the plenum system everything must pass
through the air-lock, both materials and men. The excavated
material is hoisted up to the level of the air-lock, the upper and
lower doors of which must be closed, and the pressure inside the
air-lock brought to the same as that inside the cylinder by means
of a regulating valve. The lower door is then opened to admit
the excavated material, and then closed again to cut off all com-
munication with the interior of the cylinder. The upper door is
then opened, and the material hoisted out into the open air.
The same process has to be adopted for the egress of the work-

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 121

men, and the reverse arrangement for the ingress of men and
materials. The shape and dimensions of the air-lock may be
varied according to circumstances, but the principle will remain
the same.

When the cylinder has been lowered to what is considered a
sufficient depth, it is usually loaded with a certain amount of
dead weight in the shape of old iron or other convenient material,
and allowed to remain loaded for some days to ascertain if it will
sink any further. Should this test be found satisfactory, the
dead weight is removed, and the interior of the cylinder pumped
dry and carefully filled with good cement concrete.

Cylinders for foundations are generally made circular in
section, that form being the most convenient for turning and
facing the flange-joints. They can, however, be made oval in
section, or of any section that may be found most suitable for
the work required. Pigs. 116 and 117 give the particulars of a
double-line railway bridge carried on cylinder piers across a
river. The detail sketches explain the form of cutting edge,
flange joint, and method of bracing. This bridge is one that was
reconstructed and widened from a single-line to a double-line
bridge. Traffic was carried over on one line while the second
line was being erected, hence the reason why one strong central
girder was not adopted.

Cylinders of 7 feet diameter and upwards are sometimes filled
with concrete in the lower portion, on which is built either a
circular lining or a solid mass of masonry or brickwork up to
the level of the girder-blocks. In some cases the cylinders
proper, together with their concrete filling, terminate a little
above the water-level, and upon these foundations are erected
strong cast-iron columns, plain or ornamented in design, to carry
the girders and roadway. The cylinder itself is generally con-
sidered merely as a casing or medium for obtaining a foundation,
the weight of the superstructure being carried on the internal
filling or lining.

Caissons constructed of plates of wrought-iron or steel are
much used for the foundations of large piers in deep water.
Practically they may be considered as cylinders on a large scale,
with the difference that whereas cylinders are generally con-
tinued up to the under side of the girders of the superstructure,
caissons are only carried up to a short distance above the water-
level. A caisson forms a strong water-tight iron cofferdam, from

122 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

which the water can be excluded, and a masonry or brickwork
pier constructed inside. It may be made all in one piece to
correspond to the form of the pier, or in separate pieces to form
one whole, each being sunk independent of the other, and con-
nected together afterwards. Being built up of plates cut to the
proper size and shape, it is a very simple matter to rivet on
additional tiers of plates as the caisson is lowered deeper and
deeper into the bed of the river. The lower length is made with
a cutting edge to penetrate the ground ; the exterior is made
without any projection larger than the rivet heads, and the
interior is strengthened with T-irons or double L-irons at the
joints, and strong cross-bracing to resist the pressure of the water.
About 7 or 8 feet above the cutting edge a strongly framed iron
floor is riveted to the vertical sides, and strengthened by plate-
iron under-brackets placed at short distances. The excavators
work in the space below the floor, and the excavated material is
passed up through openings formed in the floor at convenient
points to suit the working. The methods of lowering a caisson
are the same as for lowering a cylinder. If the pneumatic
system has to be adopted, then two or more air-tight tubes of
liberal dimensions (say 5 to 8 feet diameter), according to the
size of the caisson, must be attached to the floor, and on the top
of each of these tubes air-locks must be secured for the removal
of men and materials. The masonry or brickwork of the pier is
built upon the iron floor, and a portion of this building work is
usually carried on during the sinking of the caisson to obtain
weight to assist in the lowering. When down to the proper
depth, the space below the floor is properly cleared of debris and
water, and then carefully filled in with cement concrete.

Some caissons are made with vertical sides throughout their
entire height ; others have an outward taper for 15 or 20 feet on
the lower end. The former are not only simpler in construction,
but are more easily kept in a vertical position during the
sinking. Caissons are usually put together in some convenient
place near the edge of the water, and then conveyed on pontoons
to the sites of the piers. Great care is required in lowering
them into position in the bed of the river, and guide-piles, guy-
chains, and other appliances are frequently necessary to keep
them vertical during the sinking.

The form, dimensions, thickness of plates, cross-bracing, and
general arrangement will depend upon the size and depth of the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 123

pier to be constructed. Caissons for heavy work on difficult or
treacherous ground require great care, not only in their con-
struction, but also in placing them in exact position, and in
sinking them correctly to their proper depth. A tilted caisson
is a most difficult subject to handle, and entails heavy expendi-
ture to restore it to a true vertical position. By making careful
borings, the engineer can ascertain very closely the depth to
which the caisson will have to be lowered to obtain a good firm
foundation. With this information the caisson can be so con-
structed that the upper portion, termed the temporary caisson,
commencing a few feet above the bed of the river, can be
detached, and removed at the completion of the work from the
lower or permanent portion sunk below the ground line.

Fig. 118 gives sketches of a wrought-iron plate-caisson
applied to a deep-water river pier, and lowered to its full depth
by the pneumatic process; dotted lines show the air-tubes
through which the excavated material is hoisted and emptied
into barges alongside.

Many large and important pier foundations have been
constructed on the system of brick cylinders or wells, particu-
larly in India, where the foundations for large river viaducts
have to be carried down to great depths through thick deposits
of soft material These wells are built upon V-shaped curbs to
facilitate the penetration when sinking. Fig. 119 is a section
of a well with a wrought-iron curb, and Fig. 120 is a similar
well with a wooden curb. The wrought-iron curb is made in
segments for convenience of transport, the pieces forming the
complete ring being bolted or riveted together at the site of the
foundations. The wooden curb is composed of several thick
layers of hard wood planking cut to the proper shape, and laid
with broken joints, the whole being bound together with suitable
bolts and spikes. In some cases the lower or cutting edge of the
wooden curb is strengthened or protected by a sheathing of
wrought-iron plates.

Well foundations are usually put in when the rivers are at
their lowest, and reduced to a few small channels in the great
width of dried-up river bed. This condition enables the greater
portion of the curbs to be conveniently and accurately placed in
position on dry ground, or on ground which, although soft and
muddy, is not covered with water. Should the site of one of
the wells occur in one of the small channels, the stream can be

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

11

II

126 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

diverted to one side, and a small artificial island made to receive
the curb above water-level When a curb is fairly fixed in
position, the work of building the brick well can be commenced.
With the wrought- iron curb the triangular cavity between the
vertical plate and sloping plate must be filled with concrete to
form a level base for the first course of brickwork. The wooden
curb being composed of horizontal layers of timber, is ready to
receive the brickwork without further preparation. To strengthen
and keep the brickwork firmly tied together, strong wrought-
iron vertical tie-rods, 1\ or 1£ inch in diameter, are generally
built into the work — as shown in the sketches — at distances
about four feet apart The lower end of the bottom tier of tie-
rods is secured to the curb, and the upper end passed through a
strong wrought-iron plate-ring, which is continuous all round
the brickwork. A long deep nut is screwed down over the top
or screwed end of tie-rod until the plate-ring is down tight on
the brickwork. The tightening nuts are made sufficiently deep
to receive the lower ends of a second series of vertical tie-
rods, which in like manner pass through another wrought-iron
plate-ring on the next section of brick well, and the same
arrangement is continued for the full height of the welL The
lengths of the tie-rods will depend upon the lengths of the
section of brickwork to be built at a time, and may vary from
10 to 15 feet.

As the work of building proceeds the curb and brick well
will sink gradually into the ground, and down to a certain
depth, varying according to the material of the river bed, the
weight of the brick well itself will effect the penetration and
lowering. Beyond this depth the lowering must be done by
scooping or dredging the material from the inside of the well,
and placing heavy weights of old railway iron or other con-
venient masses on the top. When one section or length of well
has been sunk down, then another set of tie-rods are inserted
into the deep nuts, and another section of brickwork commenced.
The operation of lowering is rather tedious, as all the weights
have to be hoisted up on to the top of the length in hand, and
piled so as to leave space for lifting out the material dredged
from the interior ; and then, when the length has been lowered,
all the weights must be removed before the brickwork can be
resumed on another length. Where the river bed consists of
soft material, the excavation inside the well can generally be

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 127

effected by suitable dredges or scoops worked from the surface
or top of brickwork. Should trees or other obstructive masses
be met with embedded in the strata, it will be necessary to
employ divers to remove them piecemeal out of the way of
the curb.

When the brick well has been lowered down to the full
depth, and is thoroughly bedded in a stratum of strong material,
the test weights should be left on for some time to ascertain if
there is any further sinking. After all the weights have been
removed the bottom of the well can be dredged out clean, and
the interior filled in with concrete to such height as may be
considered necessary.

Brick wells must be watched carefully to ensure that they
sink down in a perfectly vertical position. Any inclination
away from the perpendicular must be corrected at once by means
of guys and struts, the same as in sinking iron cylinders. The
principal difficulty will be with the first 20 or 25 feet

The diameter of the well will depend upon the weight it has
to carry, and its height from river bed to under side of girders.
The wells may be either circular or polygonal in section, and.
built singly or in pairs, as shown in sketches (Fig. 121).

Many piers and abutments of bridges in shallow or moder-
ately deep water are built by means of coffer-dams of timber and
clay puddle. The coffer-dam forms a water-tight wall round the
site of the foundation, from which the water is pumped out, and
the excavation carried down to the depth required. In very
shallow water it is sometimes sufficient to drive only a single
row of piles, and form a bank of good clay puddle on the outside,
as shown in Fig. 122. In deep water it is necessary to drive a
double row of piles, 3 or 4 or more feet apart, and fill in the
space between with clay puddle, as shown in Fig. 123. The
piles for coffer-dam work should be carefully selected, of good
timber straight, and correctly sawn on the contact faces. Guide-
piles are first driven in proper line and position round the
intended foundation. To these strong horizontal double waling
pieces are securely bolted, one on each side of the guide-pile, one
pair near the top, and the other pair as low down as can be
placed. The sheeting piles, which are lowered down between
the horizontal waling or guiding pieces, are driven as close to
one another as possible, being assisted in doing so by the sheet-
pile shoe, shown on Fig. 124, which is made not with a point like

128 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

an ordinary pile shoe (Fig. 125), but with a cutting edge slightly
inclined, so that in driving the tendency of the pile is to drift
towards the pile previously driven. Sometimes the outer row
of piles consists of whole balks, and the inner row of half balks ;
the size of the piles must, however, be regulated by the depth
and current of the water. When both rows of piles have been
completed, the space between should be dredged out, and then
filled with carefully prepared clay puddle. To enable the puddle
to adapt itself thoroughly to the wooden sides, it is desirable to
remove the inside walings after all the piles are driven, as any
internal projections interfere with the proper punning and
settling of the puddle. The swelling of the puddled clay has a
tendency to force apart the two rows of piles, and to counteract
this as much as possible, iron tie-rods should be passed through
from side to side every few feet, and screwed up against large
washers placed on the outside of the outer walings. Strong
struts or cross-bracing of timber must be placed from side to
side inside the coffer-dam to resist the pressure of the water
in the river. This cross-bracing can be removed gradually
as the work of building progresses upwards, and be replaced
with short struts wedged in against the sides of the finished
courses.

In cases where the ground is soft, and when it is not con-
sidered prudent to excavate the foundations deeper for fear
of disturbing the stability of the coffer-dam piles, rows of large,
square bearing-piles may be driven in the floor of the foundation,
as shown in Fig. 111. The tops of these bearing-piles must all
be sawn off to the same level, and a platform of strong double
planking securely fixed to the piles to receive the foundation
•course of concrete, masonry, or brickwork. The spaces around
the tops of the piles and the under side of the timber platform
should be filled in with good cement concrete.

The interior of the coffer-dam is kept dry by constant
pumping, either by hand pumps or steam pumps, according to
the volume of water finding its way into the foundations.
When the finished pier or abutment has been carried up above
the river water-level, the coffer-dam is no longer required, and
may be removed. Sometimes, to save the timber, the piles are
drawn by means of strong tackle fitted up for the purpose ; but
in doing this there is considerable risk of disturbance to the
foundations, and it is better to leave the piles in the ground

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 129

and employ divers to cut off the tops a little above the bed of
the river.

In preparing the design for a large foundation it is absolutely
necessary to first ascertain by careful borings the description of
material upon which that foundation must be placed, so as to
proportion the area of bearing surface to the weight to be
sustained. Some materials will naturally carry more weight
than others, and although the engineer cannot always select the
material he would prefer, he can, however, control the superficial
area of the foundations. Much valuable information has been
obtained both from experiments and from comparisons of actual
practice, and the following memoranda may be useful for
reference, as indicating the pressures per superficial foot which
may be safely put on various materials : —

Moderately stiff clay ...

Chalk ...

Solid blue clay

Compact gravel and close sand

" d rot

• • •

• • •

2} tons.

4 „

5 „

6 „
12 «

Solid rook

Doubtless the above weights have been exceeded in many
cases, but it is better to be on the safe side, and leave a good
margin for stability.

Large subaqueous foundations for heavy piers and abutments
are costly and tedious, and especially so when the pneumatic
process has to be adopted. Special appliances and well-trained,
experienced workmen are requisite, and if all the men and
materials have to pass through the air-locks, the progress of the
work must necessarily be slow. When the foundations have
been completed up to the level of the water, the construction
can be pushed on more rapidly, as the work of scaffolding,
hoisting, and building, can all be carried on in the open air.

Amongst the very many types of arch-work and girder- work
adopted for railway purposes, the following examples from actual
practice may be useful for reference : —

Fig. 126 represents small 24-foot span, low viaduct arching
suitable for a line passing through towns or villages, where
ground is valuable and the area to be covered must be kept as
small as possible. The arches may be utilized for stables, stores,
or roads of communication between the lands and properties
intersected by the railway. The segmental form gives a better
headway underneath than the semicircular, besides containing
less material in the arching proper, and requiring a smaller

K

130 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

— Ftc. 126 —

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 131

amount of centering. Every precaution should be taken to
prevent water percolating through any portion of the arching,
or haunching, and a thick layer of good asphalte should be
placed over the entire upper surface, and carried well up the
lower portion of the parapet walls, as shown on the sketch.
The cast-iron pipes with rose heads form a very efficient means
of taking away the rain-water which filters through the ballast
and filling. The pipes should be carried down in chases, or
recesses, built in the fronts of the piers, to protect them as much
as possible from injury in the yards below. Rose heads, pierced
with holes, and surrounded with small stones hand-laid, serve
well to conduct the water into the pipes. Where the arching is
of considerable length, recesses or refuges for the platelayers
may be obtained by substituting a short length of cast-iron-
plate parapet, instead of the stone or brick parapet, over some
of the piers, as indicated in the sketch.

Fig. 127 shows a similar description of arching for spans
of 30 feet. The above two examples represent plain substantial
work, but if circumstances warrant more external finish, this
can readily be added without interfering with the general
arrangement. In a similar manner, if considered preferable, the
arches may be made semicircular or elliptical.

In the sketches shown of the arched over-line and under-
line bridges, the arching and coping of parapets are in brick,
and the remainder of the work in stone. In very many cases
brick will be found cheaper and more expeditious for arching than
stone, unless the quarries turn out stone in blocks which can be
conveniently trimmed for arching. All bricks used for arch-
work should be hard and well burnt, and special care should
be taken in the selection of those to form the under-side course,
which will be exposed to the atmosphere. For moderate spans
arches have been successfully constructed of concrete. For this
description of work the materials should be carefully gauged
and mixed together, and the finished work should be allowed
to stand some time on the centres to allow the concrete to
become thoroughly set.

In Fig. 102, the cutting being deep, almost up to the level
of the public road, the foundations of the wing walls are built
in steps, resulting in a minimum of masonry below the finished
ground line. Where the cutting is shallow, and the public
road has to be brought up to the bridge on an embanked

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 133

approach, the greater portion of the wing walls will have to be
built up from the solid or original ground, and there will be
a large amount of masonry below the finished ground line, as
indicated in Fig. 128.

In some cases of over-line bridges it is necessary to curve the
wing walls to correspond to the road which turns off to the
right or left after crossing the railway, as shown in Fig. 129 ;
or the wing walls may have to form two separate curves where
the road branches off in two directions after leaving the bridge,
as shown in Fig. 130.

Fig. 131 shows plan, elevation, and cross-section of an under-
line arch bridge, considerably on the skew, carrying a railway
over a river. The wing walls are curved, and very similar in
type to some of those in preceding examples. The river bed
and ground alongside being of solid rock, good foundations were
obtained at a very moderate cost.

On many railways constructed in the beginning as single
lines only, the over-line bridges have been built for double line.
The additional cost in the outset has been small, compared with
the great expenditure which would be incurred afterwards in
reconstructing the bridges to suit a double line.

The general arrangement of abutments and wing walls shown
in the foregoing examples will apply to similar classes of bridges
where girder-work is adopted instead of arching.

There are many ways of forming the floor or deck of a girder
bridge intended to carry a railway over a road or stream. In
some cases it will be imperative to have a thoroughly water-tight
floor to prevent rain-water percolating through to the roadway
below; while in others, such as bridges over streams, and
secondary roads, this special provision will not be necessary, and
a lighter and more economical floorway can be adopted. A
strong wrought-iron or steel-plate flooring, with its correspond-
ing filling and ballasting, means not only so much additional
cost in the flooring proper, but also so much additional dead
weight to be carried by the main girders.

Fig. 132 is a sketch of rolled joist-iron Z-girders and timber
floor frequently adopted for small farm roads and cattle creeps
of 10 or 12 feet span. A beam of timber is fitted in between
the two rolled joist-irons, and the three pieces securely fastened
together with strong iron bolts placed about 3 feet apart. These
small compound girders rest on bearing-plates of wrought or cast

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 135

iron, and are held together and to gauge by tie-rods, as shown.
The rails are spiked or bolted down on to the timber beams, and
the flooring formed of strong planking.

Fig. 133 shows an arrangement of plate girders for a 16-foot
opening over a stream. The girders are placed immediately
under the rails, and are tied together by plate-iron cross-
bracing the same depth as the main girders. The flooring con-
sists of 4-inch planking laid with f-inch spaces, on which are laid
longitudinal rail-bearers 14 inches wide by 7 inches thick.

Fig. 134 is a sketch of a somewhat similar arrangement for a
lattice-girder bridge, 45 feet span, carrying a single line of rail-
way over a river. The main girders are tied together by lattice-
work cross-bracing. The floorway consists of 5-inch planking,
laid with f-inch spaces, on which is placed the 14 feet by 7 feet
longitudinal rail-bearers. Plate-iron outside brackets are riveted
to the main girders to carry the ends of the planking and
light tube-iron parapet.

Fig. 135 illustrates an example of trough girders, constructed
to carry a double-line railway over a country road 25 feet wide,
where the space from under side of girder to rail-level is small.
The girders are constructed in pairs, with short, shallow cross-
girders at 3 feet 6 inch centres, riveted in between them to
carry longitudinal timbers on which the rails are laid. Bottom
plates, I inch thick, unite the two girders for the length of
their bearing on the abutments, and a similar plate, 9 inches
wide, unites them at the centre ; the remainder of the span is left
open to prevent the lodgment of rain-water. Three strong tie-
rods are placed to keep the girders to gauge. Curved wrought-
iron ballast-plates are used between the running-rails, and plank
flooring forms the rest of the covering.

Fig. 136 is a sketch of a plate-girder bridge over a country
road 28 feet wide, with the load carried on the lower flange
of girder. Three main girders carry the double line of railway,
the centre one having double the strength of each of the outside
girders. On the top of the cross-girders, strong angle irons are
riveted to serve as guides and supports for the longitudinal
timbers which carry the rails. Every third cross-girder has
raised ends to give increased lateral stability to the main girders.
A close cast-iron plate parapet forms a screen to the roadway.
Wrought-iron ballast-plates are used between the running-rails,
and the remainder of the flooring is of timber.

136 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 137

Fig. 137 gives the particulars of one 60-foot span of a viaduct
carrying a double line of railway over tidal water. The main
girders are placed one under each line of rails, and all the four
are strongly tied together by lattice-work bracing the full depth
of the girders. The outside footpaths for the platelayers are
carried on strong brackets, riveted to the main girders. Longi-
tudinal timbers, coped with angle iron, are placed as outside
guards, alongside each rail, for the full length of the viaduct.
Wrought-iron ballast-plates are placed between the running-rails.
The remainder of the footways consist of timber planking, laid
with half-inch spaces, and covered with a layer of small pebbles
as a protection against fire.

Fig. 138 shows a very similar arrangement in a viaduct
carrying a single line of railway across a river. The two main
lattice girders — 66 feet span — are placed at 9-foot centres, to
obtain greater stability. The cross-girders are extended to carry
the outside footpaths and handrailing. Outside guards are
placed alongside each rail as in the preceding example. Wrought-
iron ballast-plates are fixed all along between the running-
rails, and timber planking used for the rest of the floorway.

Fig. 139 gives cross-section of a lattice-girder bridge, 82
feet span, carrying a single line of railway over a river, with
the load carried on the lower flange. The cross-girders are
placed at 4 feet 3 inch centres. Wrought-iron ballast-plates
compose the floorway between the rails, and timber planking
covers the rest of the bridge. Plate diaphragms, or stiffeners,
of the form shown at A» A» A, A, are riveted to the main girders
at five places in their length.

Fig. 140 shows cross-section of a lattice-girder bridge of 200
feet span, carrying a single line of railway over a river, the load
being placed on the lower flange. The floorway consists of
plate-iron cross-girders, spaced at 4-foot centres, on which are
placed the longitudinal rail-bearers and planking, the latter
being covered with a layer of clean pebbles for the width
between the running-rails. As the depth of the main girders
was sufficient to admit of overhead bracing, strong plate-iron
diaphragms, of the form shown on the sketch, were riveted to
the main girders at every 50 feet. These diaphragms thoroughly
brace the two girders together, and effectually prevent any
tendency to side-canting, at the same time imparting an effective
appearance to the bridge.

138 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 139

Fig. 141 shows cross-section of a plate-girder bridge, of 36
feet span, carrying six lines of way across a street. Strong
plated cross-girder bracing, at 4 feet 8£ inch centres, is riveted
to the main girders, and the top is covered with old Barlow rails,
12 inches wide, and weighing 90 lbs. per lineal yard. A layer of
asphalte, about 1£ inches thick, is carefully laid all over the
upper surface of these rails to make a thoroughly water-tight
floor. Clean gravel is placed on the top, on which are laid the
sleepers and rails of the permanent way. Bain-water passes
through the gravel into the hollows of the Barlow rails, and finds
its way into suitable drains provided at each abutment. This
arrangement not only prevents the falling of drip-water into the
street below, but permits of the alterations of the lines of way,
or putting in of cross-over roads on the surface above. The out-
side main girders are made deeper, and are surmounted by close
cast-iron parapets.

Fig. 142 gives the particulars of a three-span plate-girder
bridge, constructed to carry a double line of railway over two
other railways and a canal, the load being placed on the lower
flange. Two main girders are used for each line of way. Strong
plated cross-girders are placed at 5 feet 3 inch centres, and on the
top of these is laid a flooring of old Barlow rails, terminating at
the sides with sloping wing-plates riveted to the cross-girders
and main girders, the entire surface being covered with an inch
and a half layer of asphalte. Good gravel ballast is placed on
the top, on which are laid the sleepers and rails. One central
main girder of sufficient strength would have been as efficient as
the two central girders, but there was a practical difficulty
which prevented its adoption. The new girder-work was built
to replace an old structure of peculiar arrangement, and to keep
the traffic going on one line there was no alternative but to
make each line of way complete in itself.

Fig. 143 illustrates an example of jack arches in concrete
built between strong plate-girders. The span of the girders was
only 16 feet, but the opening or roadway was of considerable
length, and passed under a portion of a busy station yard. The
girders are placed at 6-foot centres, and tied together in pairs by
l£-foot tie-rods, three to the span, spaces of 6 inches in plan
being allowed between each set of the rods. The concrete was
curved up to the top plate of the girder, as shown, and the entire
surface covered with a thick layer of asphalte, on which were

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 141

placed the ballast and permanent way. Brickwork might have
been used for the jack-arching, but concrete was considered more
convenient.

Fig. 144 shows the cross-section of a truss-girder bridge of
123 feet span, carrying a double line of railway over a wide
thoroughfare, the load being placed on the lower flange. There
are two main girders, each 12 feet 6 inches deep in the centre,
and 8 feet deep at the ends. Plate cross-girders are placed at
4 feet 6 inch centres, on which is riveted longitudinal plate-
iron troughing, extending across the bridge and terminating at
the sides with wing-plates, as shown. The entire floor is
covered with a thick layer of asphalte previous to filling in
with ballast to receive the permanent way. Plate stiffeners are
adopted in this bridge very similar to those in Fig. 139.

Fig. 145 gives plan, elevation, and cross-section of a plate-
girder bridge of 95 feet span, carrying a double line of railway
over a very busy street. There are two curved-top main girders,
each 10 feet 9 inches deep in the centre, and 6 feet 7£ inches
deep at the ends. The arrangement of cross-girders, longitudinal
plate-iron troughing, and permanent way, is very similar to that
in the preceding example, but the side wing-plates are carried
up higher, and are riveted up to the web-plate of main girder,
forming continuous stiffeners from end to end of the main
girders. A light, ornamental, close cast-iron parapet is bolted
on to the top of the curved, or upper, boom of the main girder,
the top line of the parapet being carried out parallel to the
bottom boom of girder. This bridge crosses the street very
obliquely, and, although cast-iron columns were allowed at the
edge of the footpaths, the main spans are unavoidably large.
When designing the above bridge, the writer had to adopt &
girder that would form a screen, to provide a deck, or floor-way,
which would be not only water-tight, but also deaden as much
as possible the sound or vibration of passing trains, and at the
same time give some ornamental appearance to the girders and
parapets. This bridge carries a constant service of heavy trains ;
it is perfectly dry underneath, and is remarkably free from
noise or vibration.

Fig. 146 shows cross-section of a plate-girder bridge of
40 feet span, carrying a double-line railway over a street, in a
situation where the depth from top of rails to under side of
girders had to be made as small as possible. Three main girders-

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 143

were used, the centre one being doable the strength of each of
the outside girders. Instead of ordinary cross-girders, transverse
plate-iron troughing was adopted, very similar in section to the
longitudinal iron troughing in Fig. 145, but stronger. The
troughing rested on the angle iron of bottom flange of main
girder, and was riveted to the vertical web-plates of main
girders, shallow additional vertical plates being inserted along-
side web-plates to prevent any drip-water or moisture coming
in contact with the main web-plates. The entire surface of
the troughing was well covered with asphalte before filling the
hollows with gravel ballast. An ordinary transverse wooden
sleeper was placed in each hollow, and on these sleepers the
rails were secured as shown. In this case — as in others of
transverse troughing — the rain-water had to be conveyed away
from the hollow of each trough by a separate outlet into
longitudinal gutters shown at A, B, and continued on to the
abutments.

Transverse troughing is always more troublesome than
longitudinal troughing, as both ends of each trough must be
effectually closed to prevent the drainage water leaking Out
on to the web-plates, or angles of the main girders. With
longitudinal troughing the water is readily carried away from
each hollow, to cross drains constructed at the piers, or
abutments.

Fig. 147 shows cross-section of a truss-girder bridge, 120 feet
span, carrying a single line of railway over a river. The cross-
girders are placed at 10-foot centres to correspond to the vertical
members of the main truss-girder. Longitudinal plate-iron rail-
girders are riveted in between the cross-girders, and the entire
floor is covered with curved wrought- iron ballast plates, as
shown. The rails are carried on longitudinal timbers, which are
bolted on to the rail-girders. Angle iron brackets, riveted on
the top of the cross-girders, keep the rail timbers in position
and gauge.

In each of the above examples, where longitudinal rail
timbers are adopted, flange rails are shown, as many engineers
prefer to have a continuous bearing for the rails on bridges, in
case of rail fracture. There is nothing, however, to prevent the
-chair road being laid on longitudinal timbers, and for this
purpose the writer has used chairs of the ordinary pattern,
specially cast with side lugs to grip the timber, as shown in

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 145

Fig. 148. Chairs of this form have a very firm hold on the
longitudinal timber, and the side lugs check any tendency of
the splitting or opening of the wood when putting in the spikes
or screw bolts.

Fig. 149 shows cross-section of a plate-girder over-line
bridge, 32 feet span, carrying a private road, 12 feet wide, over
a double-line railway. The road traffic being small, the floor-
way was constructed of creosoted planking carried on rolled
I -iron cross-girders placed at 3 feet 8 inch centres, and riveted
to the main girders. The horse-tread track was provided with
a second layer of planking, laid transversely, to take up the
wear, cross battens, 4 inches by 2 inches, being placed at
12-inch centres, and sand spread between to give good foot-
hold, A light lattice-work parapet was bolted on to the top of
the main girders.

Fig. 150 gives cross-section of a plate-girder over-line bridge,
30 feet span, carrying a private road, 20 feet wide, over a double-
line railway. The main girders are tied together by lattice-
work bracing, spaced at 7-foot centres. Curved wrought-iron
plates are laid across from girder to girder, and butt against a
narrow horizontal plate, which forms part of the upper boom.
The curved plates are riveted on to the top of girder, and form
a continuous iron floor, or deck, from side to side of the bridge.
Upon this iron floor is laid an ordinary asphalte roadway. The
outside girders are made deeper, and carry an ornamental cast-
iron parapet. In some bridges of a similar construction, the
roadway is formed of creosoted wooden block paving, on a
foundation of asphalte.

Fig. 151 shows cross-section of a plate-girder over-line bridge,
28 feet span, carrying a public road, 35 feet wide, over a double-
line railway. The main girders, 2 feet 4 inches deep, are placed
at 5 feet 2 inch centres, and are tied together by plate-iron
cross-bracing 2 feet deep. Jack-arches of brickwork, 9 inches
thick, are built in between the main girders, the Launching
being filled in with concrete. The entire surface is covered
over and made watertight with asphalte, on which is laid the
metalling of the roadway. The outside girders are made
considerably deeper, and have strong cast-iron-plate parapets
bolted on to the top booms. There is no doubt that jack-arching
of brickwork or concrete makes a very strong and permanent
flotfrway, but its dead weight is very great, and its adoption is

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146

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION,

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 147

not to be recommended where iron or steel plate troughing can
be obtained at a moderate price.

Fig. 152 gives cross-section of plate-girder over-line bridge,
41 feet 6 inch span, carrying a public road, 25 feet wide, over
three lines of way. Two main girders are used, of sufficient
depth to form parapets or screens for the finished roadway.
Plate cross-girders, placed at 6 feet 6 inch centres, are riveted
to the web-plate and lower angle irons of main girders ; and on
these is placed a flooring of plate-iron longitudinal troughing
to carry the metalled roadway.

Fig. 153 gives the particulars of a plate-girder over-line
bridge, carrying an important public road, 35 feet wide, over
several main lines and sidings. The carriage-way is carried by
two girders placed at 25-foot centres, and on the lower boom
of these are riveted lattice-work cross-girders to receive the
plate-iron longitudinal troughing and roadway. The footpath
girders are set at a higher level, and the load placed on the
lower flange. The curved side brackets merely act as bracing
between the carriage-way girders and footpath girdera A cast-
iron-plate parapet is bolted on to the top of each of the footpath
girders, making a close screen, 6 feet high, above the footpath.
Lattice- work cross-girders were adopted for the convenience of
supporting small water mains and gas mains below the road-
leveL The roadway is formed of ordinary metalling, and the
footpaths of asphalte pavement ; the kerbing is of granite, and
the side water-tables of crushed granite concrete.

Fig. 154 is a cross-section of a small uncovered lattice-
girder footbridge 41 feet span, and 5 feet wide, suitable for
small roadside stations. The top and bottom flange consist
each of two angle irons, those in the bottom flange being placed
table side upwards, so as to bring the entire section of both angle
irons fairly into play, and also to provide a better bearing for
the channel-iron cross-girders which carry the planking of the
footway. When planking is carried on the inside of light angle
iron, as in Fig. 155, a severe strain is produced at the point A ;
this is entirely obviated by placing the bottom angle irons table
side upwards, as in Fig. 156. Three of the channel-iron cross-
girders are extended outwards, and to the ends of these are
riveted tee-iron stifieners to steady the main girders. In some
cases stamped, or ribbed, wrought-iron plates are used for a
footway, but, although more durable, they do not give such a

148

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 149

secure or agreeable foothold as timber. The ascent or descent of
the bridge may consist either of steps and landings, or of ramps,
according to circumstances or expediency. Sometimes these
bridges are made with curved tops, terminating in steps when
nearing the steps, or ramps. It is very questionable whether
such an arrangement is a good one or a safe one. There is
always a feeling of insecurity when walking over a sloping
surface broken up by steps, and experience points out that it is
better to continue the footway level right across to the place
where the passenger must change his direction to go down the
stairs or ramp.

Fig. 157 gives cross-section of a covered lattice-girder foot-
bridge, 62 feet 6 inches span, and 10 feet wide, suitable for
an important station. The upper boom of girder consists of
two angle irons and top plate, and the bottom boom of two
channel irons. The cross-girders are rolled joist-irons resting
on the top tables of the channel irons. Four of the cross-girders
are extended outwards, and carry plate-iron outside vertical
brackets to stiffen the main girders. Three-inch longitudinal
planking is laid down from end to end of the bridge, and on this
is laid l£-inch transverse flooring, in narrow widths, to form the
walking deck. The footbridge is lighted from the sides by
continuous glazed sashes fixed in strong wooden framework, as
shown. The roof is covered with canvas bedded in white lead,
and painted in the same way as an ordinary carriage roof.

The above examples of under-line and over-line bridges are
given more with a view of illustrating some of the many different
descriptions of flooring, rather than to point out or suggest the
type of main girder to carry the load. The description and size
of the main girders can be varied to suit the span of the bridge,
the requirements of the traffic, and the opinion of the designer.
For spans up to 50 feet it will generally be found that web-plate
girders are both simpler and cheaper than lattice or truss girders ;
at the same time, there are occasions where plate girders can be
advantageously adopted for very much larger spans, as, for
instance, in the example given in Fig. 145, where the deep plate
girders form a most efficient screen.

Figs. 160 to 194 give diagram sketches of a few out of the
many forms of open, or truss, girders which have been adopted
for large spans. There are many types from which to make a
selection, each one possessing its own special features and

ISO RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 151

advocates. In working out the details of any, or all of them,
there are some points which should always be kept in mind
when deciding the distribution of material in the main booms.
Rain-water, or moisture of any kind, is the great enemy of
wrought-iron or steel work, and therefore the plates, angles, tees,
or channel sections, should be so arranged as to afford the least
possible facility for the collection or lodgment of water. With
open, level booms, as in Figs. 137, 139, 140, 144, and 145, the
rain-water cannot collect, but runs off at the sides, and the plates
are quickly dried by the sun and wind With trough booms, as
in Fig. 158, the collected rain-water can only get away through
holes drilled for the purpose in the bottom plates. These holes
are liable to become choked up, but even when open they rarely
carry off all the accumulated water; some of it remains to
corrode the plates, and is only dried up by evaporation. The
inside of trough booms should be constantly inspected, and the
exposed plates more frequently painted than the rest of the girder.
In a similar manner, in small double- web lattice girders, with
the lattice-bars inserted between two angle irons, as in Fig. 159,
the rain-water finds its way into the spaces at A, A, in spite of
the most careful packing or filling with cement or asphalte.
Numbers of small girders of this latter type have had to be
taken out after a comparative short life, in consequence of the
great corrosion and wearing away of the lower ends of the
lattice-bars and angle irons into which they were inserted.

It is most essential, also, that all portions of the girder-work
should be conveniently accessible for inspection and painting.
Complicated connections, and parts which are difficult to examine, *
are liable to be overlooked, or, at the best, only painted in a
very imperfect manner. Neglected corners soon create deterio-
ration, the paint scales off, corrosion commences, and the working
section is gradually reduced. A discovered weakness in some
of the important parts points to an early condemnation of the
entire structure. The difficulty of access to the interior of box
or tubular girders, especially those of small or moderate dimen-
sions, is a great objection to that type of girder. Experience
has pointed out that open girders, free and exposed to the light
and air, can be so much more effectually inspected and painted.

Perhaps one of the most anxious tasks which falls to the lot of
an engineer is the renewal of under-line bridges and viaducts on
a working line. On a new line in course of construction the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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entire site of the work is at the disposal of the erectors, and the
building of a bridge or viaduct can be carried on with a freedom
which cannot be obtained on an open line. On a working
railway, the train service must be kept going, irrespective of
renewals, and very often the best that can be done is to reduce
the double line to single line working at the site of the operations.
It is not always expedient or possible to make a temporary
bridge and diverted line for traffic purposes, as the expenditure
to be incurred might be too great to warrant the outlay, or there
may be local difficulties to effectually prevent the introduction of
a provisional structure. The taking down of one half of the old
structure may necessitate the removal of stays and bracing
affecting the stability of the half remaining to carry the traffic,
and thus render temporary shoring and bracing necessary. The
erection of the new work in such a limited space has to be
watched with great care; all cranes, lifting appliances, and
scaffolding must be kept clear of vehicles moving over the
running-line, and very frequently it is found prudent to cease
erecting operations during the passage of a train.

In very many cases of renewals, the description and arrange-
ment of the old structure will materially influence or control the
design for the new one, and the details of the latter must be
schemed out so as to disturb as little as possible the stability of
the old work remaining as the working road.

The following list gives the lengths of the main spans of some
railway bridges, and may be found useful for reference : —

Lengths of Main Spans of soke Large Railway Bridges.

Name.

Span.

DMoriptloti,

feet.

i

Forth Bridge

1,710

Cantilever.

Niagara ...

■ • • • •

821

, Suspension.

Snkkur ...

» • • •

820

Cantilever.

Poughkeepsie, U.S.A. ..

i • • • *

548

Cantilever.

Douro ...

i • • • •

525

Arch.

St. Louis

i • • • •

520

Arch.

Cincinnati

» • • • •

515

Linville truss.

Haarlem ... ... ..

■ • a • ■

510

Arch.

Enilembnrg

i • • • •

492

Lattice bow.

St. John's Biver

• • • •

477

Cantilever.

Niagara ... ...

• • • • i

470

Cantilever.

Britannia

• • • • i

460

Tube,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

159

Nune.

Span.

Description.

feet.

Ohio Eiver, Pennsylvania

■ • • • • •

442

Pratt through truss.

Saltash

• ■ • • • •

434

Tube and girder.

Hawkesberry Viaduct ...

• • • • • •

410

Compound truss.

Conway ... ...

• • ■ • • •

400

Tube.

Vistula ... •■• ...

• • • • • •

397

Lattice.

Spey Eiver, Garmoutb, N.6.

• •• • • •

350

Bowstring.

St. Laurence

• •• •• •

330

Tube.

Hamburg

a • • • • •

316

Double bow.

Cologne ... ...

• • • • a •

313

Lattice.

Runcorn ... ... ...

• • • • • •

305

Lattice.

Sunderland

• • • a • ■

300

Bowstring.

Bondout Bridge, Buffalo

• • a a ••

264

Pratt through truss.

Newark Dyke (New) ...

a • • a a a

259

Lattice bow.

Tay Bridge (New)

• a • • a •

245

Lattice bow.

Ohio Biver, Louisville ...

a • a a a •

245

Fink truss.

Beaver Bridge, Pennsylvania

230

Pratt deck truss.

Graigellaohie Bridge ...

• • • a a •

200

Lattice.

Rohrbach Bridge, St. Gothard Biver ...

197

Wrought-iron arch.

Windsor Bridge

a • • • a •

187

Bowstring.

Victoria Bridge over Thames

175

Wrought-iron arch.

Shannon Biver Bridge ...

• ■ ■ a • •

165

Bowstring.

Canon Bridge over Spey

• a a • • •

150

Cast-iron arch.

Preston Viaduct

a • • a a a

102

Cast-iron arch.

Trent Biver Bridge

a • • a * a

100

Cast-iron arch.

Bataiimig Walls. — Instances

frequently

r occur during:

construction of a railway where it is advisable, if not absolutely
necessary, to substitute retaining walls in preference to forming
the slopes of cuttings and embankments.

The excavation of a cutting may be greatly reduced in
quantity by introducing low retaining walls, as in Fig. 195, and
the saving in the material to be removed will be all the more
important in those cases where cutting is in excdss of embank-
ment.

The amount of filling for an embankment and the land on
which it has to be formed may both be considerably diminished
by building a low retaining wall, say 6 or 7 feet high, at the foot
of the slope, as shown in Fig. 196. Such a retaining wall makes
a most efficient fence and well defined boundary of property.

The policy of adopting low retaining walls in cases like the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

— rio./ss^

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 161

above will depend mainly upon the cost of building materials
as compared with the cost of earthwork and land.

Where land is very valuable, and where residential property,
streets, or roads must be interfered with as little as possible, the
retaining walls may have to be carried up to the level of the
original surface of the ground, as in Fig. 197, which is shown as
for a cutting 25 feet deep. The walls may be built of masonry,
brickwork, or concrete, or a combination of them, and the dimen-
sions or thickness will depend upon the description of material
to be supported. Weeping holes, or small pipe drains, should be
formed in the walls, a little above formation level, to take away
any water which may collect at the back.

Where the cutting ia through soft, wet, treacherous clay,
liable to slip or expand, it may be necessary to insert arched
thrust girders extending from side to side, as in Fig. 198, so that
the outward pressure against the one wall may counteract
against the outward pressure of the other. The thrust girders
should be placed at from 10 to 15 feet centres, and be well
braced together in plan to enable them the better to resist any
tendency of bulging out of the walla

A similar arrangement of high retaining wall may be intro-
duced in embankment to lessen the encroachment on streets or
public roads, as shown in Fig. 199.

In making a railway through thickly populated towns, it is
generally preferable to construct the line on arches rather than
on earthwork filling between two high retaining walla The
numerous openings are available for future streets, or means of
communication from one side to the other, and the arches them-
selves can be profitably utilized for stables, stores, offices, and
workshops.

Fig. 200 shows a narrow rocky pass with deep rapid river on
the one hand and high clifls on the other, the only available
ledge being already occupied by a public highway. By building
a retaining wall, as indicated on the sketch, and excavating a
little out of the cliff, space may be obtained for a line of railway ;
or the arrangement may have to be reversed, and the retaining
wall for the railway built along the margin of the river, as in
Fig. 201.

In both the cases, Figs. 200 and 201, not only must there be
a number of weeping holes left in the lower part of the wall, but
there must be sufficient well-built drains and culverts under the

M

162 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

filling and through the wall to cany away all ordinary or flood
water coming down from the cliffs and hills above. Where a
retaining wall is built along the margin of a river, the lower
portion, which will be in contact with the water when the river
is full, should be constructed of selected large heavy stones to
withstand the scouring action of the water, and any brushwood
or floating timber which may be brought down by flood water.

Where retaining walls are built to support wet clay, or in
embanked places on wet side-lying ground, the efficiency of the
work will be much increased by constructing a layer, two or
three feet in thickness, of dry, flat, bedded stones carefully hand-
laid, from the foundation to the top of the wall, as shown in
Fig. 199.

These dry stones form a continuous vertical drain to take
away water from any part of the earthwork down to the outlets
left in the lower portion of the wall.

The building of retaining walls entirely of dry stone is very
questionable economy, and entails a constant expenditure in
maintenance and renewal. The working out of one stone loosens
the surrounding portion of the wall, and if not at once repaired,
a length of the wall will fall down, bringing with it a large
quantity of the earthwork.

If readily obtained, large heavy stones should be selected for
the coping of retaining walls, so as to minimize as much as
possible the chance of their disturbance or displacement. Where
lighter stones have to be used, or bricks laid on edge, they should
be bedded and pointed in cement.

In many places it is necessary to form wide and massive
foundations of concrete on which to build the retaining wall ;
and in some cases of soft, treacherous ground, timber piling may
be necessary.

Tunnels. — It would be difficult to assign a date to the first
examples of subterranean works constructed for utilitarian
purposes. Nature had furnished so many grand specimens of
caves, grottoes, and underground passages formed in the solid
rock, that man soon grasped the principle, and essayed to carry
out similar works on his own account. The early attempts
would probably be limited to forming places of shelter, storage
or security. Advantage would be taken of those rocks which
from their locality, accessibility, and compactness of material,
promised favourable results. The appliances being few and

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 163

primitive, the work of construction would be laborious and
slow. So long, however, as the workers restricted their opera-
tions to the solid rock, they had merely to contend against the
hardness of the material, as the opening or passage-way, once
made, required no further support or attention; but as the wave
of progress swept onward, man was compelled to deviate from
the lines originally followed by nature, and had to form his
subterranean pathway through softer material, where the work-
ings required substantial support. The search for minerals of
various kinds led to the driving of long headings or galleries
underground, and as these had frequently to penetrate through
strata of a soft and yielding character, strong timber framework
had to be introduced to afford stability to the works, and safety
to the workers. For ordinary mining operations, strong rough
timber supports may meet all requirements, and may last until
the heading is worked out and abandoned ; but for subterranean
passages or tunnels which are intended to form permanent means
of communication, the strongest and most durable materials
must be used to protect the interior as far as possible from
deterioration or decay. Heavy timbering might be sufficient for
mere temporary purposes, but substantial masonry or brickwork
side walls and arching became necessary for permanent work in
those portions where the tunnel required artificial support.

The first tunnels of any importance were most probably those
constructed for canal purposes. Many of them were of con-
siderable magnitude, and in some instances were from two to
three miles in length. They were substantially lined with
masonry or brickwork at all places where the tunnel passed
through soft material or loose rock, and from the solid nature of
the work, and the many years they have been in existence, they
thoroughly testify to the ability of the constructors.

The introduction of railways involved the making of a large
number of tunnels, perhaps more so in the beginning, when it
was thought that the use of the locomotive would be confined
to very moderate gradients, and when engineers hesitated to
adopt the steeper inclines and sharper curves which form the
practice of modern times. Another element of consideration
also consisted in the fact that the first railways were designed
to connect the most populous and busiest districts, where the
prospects of heavy traffic would appear to warrant a large
outlay for works of construction. As the system spread and

164 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

railways extended further away from the important centres, the
probabilities of traffic would become less promising, and efforts
would be made to keep down cost of construction, and avoid
tunnel work as much as possible.

It is not easy to define where cutting should end and
tunnelling begin. There is no practical difficulty in making a
cutting 50, 60, or 70 feet deep, with slopes to suit the material
excavated, and the estimated cost per yard forward may even
compare favourably with the cost of average tunnel-work. But
there are other questions which must be kept in view — the time
required to form the cutting, the space to be obtained on which
to deposit the enormous quantity of excavated material, and the
probable difficulty in obtaining the large area of land necessary
for the cutting.

Before deciding the actual position of a tunnel, both as to
line and level, it is necessary to obtain the most reliable informa-
tion possible regarding the strata through which it has to pass.
In addition to the geological indications on the surface and in
the locality, borings should be made, and trial holes or shafts
sunk along the proposed centre line of the work, and from these
an approximately accurate longitudinal section can be laid down
on paper, showing the respective layers of material to be cut
through, and the angle at which they lie. With these particulars
before him, the engineer may, in some cases, consider it more
prudent to change the position of the tunnel in preference to
incurring specially difficult or tedious work in dealing with some
recognized unfavourable material. Occasionally the route may
be slightly varied and better material obtained, but very
frequently there is little to be gained except by a wide devia-
tion from the original line.

Solid rock, except for the slow progress, is perhaps the most
favourable material for tunnelling, as the timbering, side walling,
and arching can be almost, if not entirely, dispensed with.

Loose rock, although more readily removed, necessitates
strong timbering to prevent large masses breaking away and
falling into the tunnel

Some clays are very compact and tenacious, and will stand
well with moderate timbering, but even these should not be left
long before following up with the side walls and arching.

Many clays give much trouble by expanding, or swelling out,
when the excavation penetrates the layer, and although extra

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 165

strong timbering may be used, and be placed closer together, the
logs and planks are frequently bulged out and broken by the
action of the clay. Specially strong supports are required for this
description of clay, and extra thickness of material in the perma-
nent work of side walls and arching.

Solid unbroken beds of chalk are not difficult to cut through :
the material is easy to work, and the excavation will stand with
ordinary timbering; but where the chalk is broken and inter-
sected with deep pockets of gravel and sand, the operations are
very much impeded The loose material, once set free by cutting
through the confining barrier of chalk, will quickly fall into and
fill up the excavation if not held back by strong timbering.
Side walls and arching are generally necessary for tunnels
through chalk.

Soft wet clay, quicksands, or other strata having springs of
water percolating through them, are serious obstacles in the way
of expeditious tunnelling. No sooner is one cube yard of this
soft material removed than another slides down, or is washed
down, to take its place. When once the excavation taps the
water-bearing strata, large volumes of water will find their way
into the workings, and must be conveyed away to the mouth of
the tunnel, or pumped up through the nearest shaft. The timber-
ing of the sides and roof through this description of working is
very tedious, and attended also with a considerable amount of
risk. The absence of really solid ground on which to place or
shore up the supports, taxes the skill of the excavators, and very
often, when a short length has been made apparently secure, it
will come down with a run, compelling all hands to beat a hasty
retreat. The permanent lining through such treacherous material
should follow the excavation very closely, and special care should
be exercised in building the walls, arching and invert.

In the excavation through stratified rocks it is necessary to
note carefully the lie of the strata, whether horizontal, vertical,
or shelving, as with each one the excavators are exposed to risks,
against which every precaution should be taken. A large hori-
zontal slab of solid-looking rock will suddenly break and fall
down without any warning. A heavy mass from a vertical layer,
perhaps unkeyed, or loosened, by an adjacent blasting operation,
drops down when least expected ; and pieces from the high side
of the shelving layers detach themselves and slide into the work-
ing in a most unaccountable manner.

166 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

No attempt should be made to cany a tunnel through material
which has been disturbed or at all affected by any natural slip or
cleavage, as although the strata may be hard- and compact in
themselves, they have really no solid or fixed foundation. The
sliding away, once initiated, is certain to continue, and, accelerated
by the tunnelling operations, will most likely, sooner or later,
crush in the tunnel and sweep away every vestige of the work.
Amongst the great mountain ranges these natural disturbances
are by no means rare, and it will be wiser to keep away from
their locality, even at the expense of a longer tunneL Unfor-
tunately, instances are on record of tunnels made, or in course of
construction, through hillsides which had already commenced to
slide away from the more solid rock, and the ultimate results
were a further sliding away and total destruction of the work.

The lower slopes and outlying portions of high mountains are
the most exposed to these natural slips, and they should be most
carefully studied before commencing any tunnelling operations
through them.

To facilitate drainage, it is essential that a railway tunnel
should be laid down with a gradient or gradients falling in the
direction of one or both ends of the tunnel. In nearly all tunnels
a considerable amount of water finds its way in through the
weeping-holes left for that purpose in the side walls, and must be
carried away in suitable drains. If the quantity of water be
small, ordinary water-tables, one on each side, may be sufficient ;
but for large volumes of water it will be necessary to build sub-
stantial side-drains, or an ample culvert below the level of the
rails.

The gradients in a tunnel should be moderate, and not by
any means excessive, or likely to tax the hauling powers of the
locomotives. When an engine is working nearly to the utmost
of its power on a steep tunnel incline, and the speed has become
very slow, the exhaust vapours or gases from the funnel strike
the arching with great force, and are deflected down on to the
footplate in such dense volumes as to almost suffocate the driver
and fireman. The writer will never forget two or three trying
experiences in foreign tunnels, when he and the engine-staff
were compelled to leave the footplate and climb forward to the
front of the funnel, leaving the engine to work its way alone.
Except for very short tunnels it is wiser to have easy inclines,
and to restrict the steep gradients to the open line, where

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 167

the very slow travelling, or even the coming to a stand
from "slipping/ 1 may not produce unpleasant or alarming
consequences.

In tunnels of any length it is usual, where possible, to con-
struct shafts extending from the surface of the ground overhead
down to the tunnel below. These shafts serve the double pur-
pose of enabling the excavation to be carried on at an increased
number of faces, and act as permanent ventilators after com-
pletion. In some cases the shafts are sunk exactly over the
centre line of the tunnel, in others a few yards away from the
centre line. The latter arrangement, if not quite so convenient
for hoisting material while carrying on the excavations, has
certainly the great after advantage that anything falling or
maliciously thrown down the shaft cannot strike a passing train.
The short side-gallery, or space between the tunnel and the shaft,
provides a good refuge for workmen employed in repairs, and a
convenient site for storing a few materials advisable to keep on
hand.

Occasionally favourable opportunities present themselves for
making horizontal shafts. For a portion of its length the tunnel
may be located at no very great distance from the precipitous
sides of some deep mountain ravine, or run near to the cliffs on
the sea-coast, and advantage can be taken to drive a lateral head-
ing or gallery through which the material from the tunnel exca-
vation may be conveyed and thrown out into the gorge or sea-
shore below.

In many cases the surface of the ground rises so abruptly
from the faces of the tunnel and ascends to so great a height,
that shafts of any kind are entirely out of the question, and the
whole of the work must be carried on from the two ends. The
rate of progress is consequently much slower, and the ventilation
more difficult. In a shaftless tunnel of considerable length, and
with a frequent train service, the question of providing suitable
appliances for promoting artificial ventilation is of the utmost
importance.

When the centre line of the tunnel has been accurately set
out on the ground, and the levels of the different parts of the
work decided, the construction of the shafts and the driving of
the headings can' be commenced. Working shafts intended to
serve for permanent ventilation are generally made nine or ten
feet or more in diameter, and are usually lined with substantial

168 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

brickwork or masonry. When the well-like excavation has
been carried down a few yards, or as far as it can be taken
without the risk of the earth falling in upon the sinkers, a strong
curb of hard wood or iron of the same diameter as the finished
shaft is laid down perfectly level and to exact position, and on
this curb the ring or lining of brickwork or masonry is built up
to the level of the ground. The first length finished, the excava-
tion downwards is resumed, and the interior lining continued,
either by allowing the first length to slide down as the material
below is gradually removed, and building further lining on the
top, or by excavating and propping up the curbing with strong
timbers below. When working to the latter method, stout
wooden props of convenient length, stepped on to sole-pieces, are
adjusted to the under side of the wooden curb above, the material
is then removed for the thickness of the brickwork or masonry,
and another curb accurately set to level and position ; on this is
built a length of lining up to the first curb.

This work of under-building or under-pinning must be carried
out with great care and in segments ; no props must be removed
until the curb immediately above is well supported by the new
lining, and the inside of the lining must be watched and tested
to prevent any tilting. All spaces at the back of the work must
be filled in and well packed with hard dry material. As the
shaft is continued downwards the mode of working may have to
be varied ; different descriptions of material may be encountered,
and blasting, shoring, and pumping may each in turn be
necessary.

When down to the full depth, the lower length of the shaft
will have to be securely supported by strong timbers, until it
can be properly built into and incorporated with the arching of
the tunnel or side gallery.

The completion of the shaft enables the workings to be com-
menced on each side, the excavated material can be hoisted to
the surface, and building material lowered down. When the
tunnel works are finally finished, the lining of the shaft should
be carried up until it is 15 or 20 feet above the level of the
surface of the ground, and a dome-shaped iron grating placed on
the top as a protection against stones or other articles which
malicious persons might attempt to throw down the shaft.

Some shafts are only intended for the temporary purpose of
lifting the excavations from below, or lowering building materials

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 169

down, and when the work is completed they are filled in again
and closed. These service shafts are generally made square in
section, and are merely lined with wood. Strong vertical
timbers are placed at the four corners, to which horizontal double
cross-pieces are bolted, thick planking being placed vertically at
the back of these cross-pieces to support the sides of the
excavation.

The heading of a tunnel is a narrow passage or gallery cut
through from end to end of the works in the direction of the
centre line. Where there are shafts, the cutting of the heading
can be pushed on from several points, and be completed much
more rapidly than when the working is restricted to the two
ends. Headings are usually made just sufficiently large for the
miners to work, say about 5 feet 6 inches high by about 3
feet wide, the object being rather to expedite the driving of the
driftway than to remove large masses of material. They must
be set out with great accuracy, and be constantly checked as the
driving is in progress. When completed from end to end, the
centre line can be checked throughout, and the course actually
taken compared with the course intended. If there has been
much variation in the narrow pioneer pathway, either in line or
level, the amount of the divergence must be rectified when
ranging the final centre line for the full-size excavation.

Tunnels cannot always be delayed until the heading is cut
through for the entire length. In many cases the heading, the
full-size excavation, and the permanent lining have all to be
carried on at the same time, but as the work of the heading is
smaller in extent, that portion of the operations can usually be
kept well in advance of the others. The critical moment arrives
when the headings from opposite directions meet, as any
deviation or want of coincidence must be adjusted in the portion
of the tunnel still remaining to be opened out to full size. Some
tunnels of moderate length have been constructed without any
heading at all, the excavation being taken out to the full
dimensions from the commencement.

The heading of a tunnel assists not only in the correct
alignment of the work, but furnishes at the same time an
accurate knowledge of the strata passed through. It is also of
service for ventilation, communication, and drainage.

In some cases the heading is driven at the bottom of the
tunnel section, as in Fig. 211, and in others at the top, as in

i7o RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Figs. 202 and 204. Many of the earlier tunnels were constructed
on the former system, while of late years the latter method has
been very largely adopted. The bottom heading may perhaps
in some instances be more efficacious for drainage, but it is very
liable to be frequently choked up when taking out the excava-
tion to the full size, and the lower surface is much cut up by the
movement and conveyance of materials. Another disadvantage
arises from the necessity of removing such a large amount of the
cutting approaching the tunnel entrance before a beginning can
be made to the bottom heading. The top heading has the advan-
tage that it requires less removal of open cutting previous to its
commencement, and, being high up in position, there is less
chance of its being stopped up by falling material, the finished
excavations being carried out on the sides and below the
heading.

Where the headings are cut through solid rock, stiff shale, or
compact chalk, little or no supports are necessary, but where
they pass through clay or loose material, timbering will be
required for sides, roof, and floor. Bough round poles, about 6
inches in diameter, are generally used for verticals, and are
firmly secured to transverse sole-pieces, and on the top of these
verticals strong transverse top-sills are fastened by means of
rough tenons or checks. Strong boards are inserted at the back
of this framowork to keep the earth from falling into the work-
ing. The distance apart of the verticals will depend upon the
description of material excavated ; in very soft places they will
have to be placed very close together, but where fairly sound
and tenacious they may be placed at about 3-foot centres.
The excavated material must be conveyed away to the entrance
of the heading in small hand-trucks running on planks or light
rails.

The widening out of the excavation to the full size will be a
repetition on a large scale of the work carried out in the heading,
with the difference that, the exposed surfaces being of so much
greater extent, extra care and precautions must be taken with
the framework and shoring of the timbering.

The form and arrangement of the timbering, as well as the
number, sizes, and positions of the pieces, must be determined by
the material of the excavation and the contour line of the finished
arching or lining. The framework, which would be sufficient to
support ordinary soft material, must be largely augmented both

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

172 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

in quantity and scantling to meet the requirements for wet
treacherous clay.

Figs. 202 and 203 give end view and longitudinal section of
timber framework frequently adopted for average tunnel work.
The positions of the different pieces will explain themselves and
the duty they have to perform. The main struts, or raking
pieces, which have to sustain great pressure, may be shored
against the finished lengths of masonry or brickwork. The
timbering of the sides can be removed as the lining proceeds, but
in many cases the round logs and boards near the crown cannot
be withdrawn, and have to be left in the work, the space
between the top of the arching and under side of the boards
being firmly packed with brickwork, masonry, or dry rubble
stonework.

As the tunnel lining is generally carried forward in short
lengths, following up the main excavations, the centering for the
arching should be of such description that it can be readily
transferred or moved forward as the work proceeds. The form
of the centering, and the spacing of its upright supports, must
admit of sufficient width for one or more lines of rails for the
waggons required to remove the excavated dSbris and convey
the building materials used in the lining.

Picks, bars, and shovels are the tools used in the excavation
of the softer material and loose disintegrated rock, but for the
hard rock, blasting will be necessary. The tunnel opening being
comparatively small, only moderate blasting charges can be used
with safety, and these must be placed so as to break up the rock-
bed in a suitable manner for working, and without shaking or
damaging the already completed excavation. Ordinary hand-
drills, or jumpers, may be used for forming the charge holes,
a number of them being at work at the same time, and the
charges fired very closely one after the other. As the blasting
operations necessitate the retiring of the miners to a considerable
distance, out of the way of flying fragments, and the remaining
away until the foul air has been dispelled, it is advisable to fire
off several charges about the same time, and thus minimize as
much as possible the stoppage to the drilling and clearing away
the loosened material.

Mechanical drills, worked by compressed air or other motive-
power, are now very extensively used where the rock is solid
and continuous. They are much more expeditious than the hand

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

174 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

drills, but they are costly in their installation, and also in their
working and maintenance.

In some tunnels, where the material has been firm and dry,
the upper portion of the excavation has been first removed, and
the masonry and brickwork lining built in position down to
about the springing of the arch, the remainder of the excavation
being afterwards taken out, and the side walls built by means of
shoring and underpinning.

In other tunnels the complete section has been excavated
and timbered, and the work of building commenced from the
foundation of the side walls. A strong continuous invert from
side wall to side wall is necessary where passing through soft
swelling clay or loose strata intersected with small streams of
water. Where the material is very solid and dry, it is not
necessary to introduce inverts, but the foundations of the side
walls should be laid at such a depth below rail-level as not to be
affected by drain- water running through the tunnel

The side walls and arching may be either of masonry or
brickwork, but should be of the best description, especially for
the facework. For brick arching only the best hard-burnt
bricks should be used, and the inner or exposed ring should
consist of selected hard fire-bricks to withstand the heat and
gases escaping from the funnels of the locomotives. The thick-
ness of the side walls and arching will depend upon the descrip-
tion of material to be supported. In some places a comparative
thin lining may be sufficient, while in others extra thickness
must be given to resist the great pressure exerted by expanding
clay and loose wet strata.

Weeping-holes, or small drain-pipes, placed low down must be
left in the side walls every three or four yards, or closer in very
wet places, to allow the water collected at the back of the walls
to escape into the side drains of tunneL In building the arch
portion every effort should be made to have close solid work
without any open joints or spaces through which the water may
run, and the crown of the arch and a few feet down on each side
should be coated with cement or asphalte to lead all water away
from the top to the sides. Water dripping from the under side
of the arch on to the line is a great destructor of the permanent
way materials, especially the fastenings; and bolts, nuts, fish-
plates; and spikes placed in a wet dripping tunnel will not last
half the time they would out in the open line, where they would
have the sun and wind to dry them.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

• ' " f - " - -

176 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Small arched recesses or niches should be formed in the side
walls at convenient distances to serve as refuges for platelayers
or others working in the tunnels.

It is most essential that the space between the masonry and
brickwork lining and the facework of the excavation should be
carefully filled in and hard packed, so as to prevent the possi-
bility of pieces of rock or other material falling on to the top of
the arch. The neglect of this precaution may lead to a casualty
years after the tunnel has been completed.

It would be impossible to over-rate the importance of a
constant faithful supervision of the building of the lining,
especially the arching. The work has to be carried on by
workmen in cramped positions, with imperfect light, and sur-
rounded by all kinds of obstacles and inconveniences, and unless
a detailed inspection be rigidly maintained, a carelessness in the
selection of the materials, and a laxity in the workmanship, will
be the inevitable result.

Figs. 204 to 219 are sections of tunnels which have been
constructed for double and single line railways. The sections
give the normal form and dimensions adopted in each case,
although there may have been many portions of the work where
unfavourable or treacherous material necessitated an increase in
the thickness of the side walls, or of the arching, or of both.
The types vary in accordance with the opinions of the designers
as to the most suitable section for the purpose, and range from
the comparatively thin lining and vertical side walls shown on
Fig. 207, to the almost circular form and very thick lining shown
on Fig. 216. The latter is the section which experience has
proved to be the best to sustain the enormous all-round pressure
exerted by certain descriptions of swelling clay.

Careful judgment will be required to decide which parts of
a rock tunnel may be left unlined. The apparently solid-looking
portions are oftentimes deceptive, and numbers of instances are
on record of large pieces of rock falling down in tunnels which
for many years had been considered as thoroughly secure.
Where there is any doubt it is better and safer to put in a
lining, even if only to the extent of an arching springing from
side walls of solid rock, as shown on Fig. 206. A moderate
additional expenditure at the time of construction may prevent
a serious catastrophe afterwards.

The faces or entrances to tunnels may be constructed with

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

178 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

curved wing walls, as in Fig. 220, or with straight wing walls,
as in Figs. 221, 222, and 223. Where the approach cutting is in
rock, the latter form is generally adopted.

It would be misleading to put down any average price for
tunnel-work. So much depends upon the locality, the description
of material to be excavated, the cost of masonry or brickwork,
and the cost of labour. Added to these come the unforeseen
troubles of slips and water-laden strata, creating difficulties
which baffle the miners for a time, and add enormously to the
expenditure. Some tunnels for double line have been con-
structed in good ground, and under favourable circumstances as
to building materials and labour, for as low as £32 per lineal
yard ; while others, carried out under adverse conditions, have
cost as much as £150 per lineal yard. A medium somewhere
between the two should represent the cost of tunnel-work
through ground which does not present any special difficulty.
At the same time it must be borne in mind that simple tunnel-
ling which can be done in one locality for £50 or £60 per lineal
yard, would be increased 20, 30, or 40 per cent in another, -where
building material for the lining is scarce and expensive.

Tunnel- work abroad will generally cost more than the same
work at home. The native labourers may perhaps be procured
at low rates, but the skilled workmen must be brought from a
distance, and will obtain high wages.

Another form of tunnel-work, generally termed the covered-
way system, is frequently adopted in towns and places where
land and space are very valuable. This method consists in the
excavating and removing of earthwork to admit of the building
of the side walls and arching of a suitable tunnel- way, and then
filling in over the top to a depth of three or four feet, or up to
the level of the original surface of the ground. This work may
be carried out by either removing the entire width of the earth-
work before the commencement of any building operations, or
by first forming two deep, well-shored trenches, in which to
build the side walls up to about arch-springing. In bad ground
the latter arrangement has the advantage, as the shoring and
strutting to hold up the sliding material is limited to the widths
of the two narrow trenches, and the centre block of earthwork
is left untouched as a support to the strutting. When the side
walls have been built sufficiently high the upper portion of the
centre block of earthwork can be removed to allow of the

RAIL WA Y CONSTRUCTION. 179

erection of centering and building of the arching, and afterwards
the remaining portion of earthwork can be removed at con-
venience. In this manner a tunnel-way may be constructed
under streets, gardens, and even under buildings. Being nearly
all done in the open, the work is more under control than in an
ordinary tunnel, but it is usually very costly. Temporary or
diverted roads must be arranged ; the excavated material must
generally all be removed by carts, sometimes to long distances ;
and provision must be made for diverting the network of sewers,
gas, and water pipes which are intercepted along the route.

Fig. 224 is a sketch of covered-way with brick arching.
Fig. 225 illustrates another type where cast-iron girders and
jack-arches of brickwork were introduced on account of the
small headway. In soft yielding clay it is necessary to construct
strong inverts, as indicated in the sketches. Recesses for the
platelayers should be provided every ten or fifteen yards.

The above systems of covered- way were largely adopted in
the construction of the underground portions of the Metropolitan
Railway and District Railways in and around London.

In addition to the ordinary type of tunnel formed by first
excavating the material and then lining the opening with brick-
work or masonry, tunnels of moderate size have been constructed
of cast-iron tubes, similar in section to Fig. 226. The tubes
were cast in short segments, bolted together inside, the outer
circumference, or surface in contact with the earth or clay,
being left free from projections of any kind. By making the
segments with bolt-holes exact to template, they were readily
fitted together in the work, and a thin layer of suitable packing
material placed between the bolting-flanges sufficed to render
the tubes water-tight. The tunnelling was carried on by means
of a short length of slightly larger tube, or cap, made of plate-
iron or steel, which fitted over the leading end of the main tube.
The front end of this cap was made very strong, and provided
with doors through which the miners could work. A series of
hydraulic presses attached to the cap were brought to bear on
the bolting-flange of the last completed ring, and as the exca-
vated matter was removed by the miners from the front the
cap was forced forward by the hydraulic presses, and another
ring of cast-iron segments inserted. On the City and South
London Railway, constructed on the above system, the small
annular space formed round the cast-iron tube by the operation

i8o RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

£ g : £ £ 3"*

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 181

of the sliding cap was filled in with cement grouting by means
of an ingenious machine designed for the purpose.

Large tunnels under rivers or tidal estuaries must each be
dealt with according to the particular circumstances of depth
below stream-bed, material to be cut through, length of tunnel,
and gradient. The chief obstacle to be contended against in so
much of the river tunnel-work is the large volume of water
which pours into the workings through fissures in rock or seams
of gravel and sand, necessitating the constant use of most
powerful pumps. In ordinary land tunnels the gradients are
generally laid out to fall towards one or both entrances, and any
water finding its way into the excavations may be led away to
the entrances by drains or pipes. On the other hand, in a river
tunnel the gradients generally fall away from the entrances
down towards the centre of the river, and all water coming in
must be pumped out and raised up to at least the level of the
river. In places where the water comes streaming in from
many points, any failure or stoppage of the pumps would place
the lives of the miners, and the security of the work itself, in
great jeopardy. Iron shields, or protection chambers for the
miners advancing the excavation, have been used with great
success in carrying on work through loose wet strata which
appeared to defy all other means of progress. Solid rock, chalk,
or compact clay, may present no difficulty so far as they go, but
a continued dip in the gradient, or a line of fault, may suddenly
change the entire course of operations, and require the imme-
diate use of the most powerful pumping machinery and protective
appliances. The special features of each case will demand special
precautions, and the judgment and inventive powers of the
engineer will be severely tested in coping with the difficulties
with which he is surrounded.

CHAPTER III.

Permanent way — Rail*— Sleepers — Fastenings — and Permanent way laying-

Bailg. — Accustomed as we now are to the substantial character
of the permanent way of our railways, we can scarcely realize
that in the earlier examples the rails or tram-plates were made
of wood The first lines of which we find any record were
those constructed to facilitate the conveyance of coal, iron ore,
stone, slate, or other heavy materials to shipping ports or points
of distribution. Speed was a matter of little importance, the
principal object being to introduce a distinct surface or roadway
which would allow a heavier load to be hauled without in-
creasing the hauling power. As a heavily loaded wheelbarrow,
difficult to move on an ordinary road, can be readily wheeled
along a wooden plank, so it may have been inferred that strong
timber, laid in parallel lines and level and even on the upper
surface, would form a track, or roadway, presenting far less
resistance than the ordinary gravelled or paved roads.

The wooden tramway was the first improvement over the
ordinary road. The idea once originated, various types were
soon introduced, and the sketch shown in Fig. 227 illustrates
one which appears to have been early suggested and largely
adopted. Wooden cross-sleepers, A, A, were placed at con-
venient spaces, and on the top of these strong timber planks or
beams, B, B, were spiked at proper distances to suit the wheels
of the waggons or four-wheel trucks, which had flat tyres like
ordinary carts. The spaces between the sleepers were filled in
with gravel or broken stone to form a roadway or hauling path
for the horses. A little later double rails were introduced, by
placing a second or upper timber on the top of the lower one, as
in Pig. 228.

This double rail arrangement not only strengthened the
framework, but by increasing the height allowed a greater

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

183

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184 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

quantity of suitable material to be placed over the sleepers to
protect them from wear by the horses' feet. It can be easily
understood that a wooden tramway could not be very durable.
It would be affected by the sun, rain, and snow, and particles
of sand and gravel thrown on to the tram beams from the
hauling path would hasten the abrading or wearing away of
the soft portions of the timber into hollows, leaving the hard
knots standing out as projections. The uneven surface -would
produce a series of blows every time a loaded truck passed
along, loosening the pieces and rendering the repairs constant
and expensive. To obviate the rapid wear of the tram-timbers
continuous narrow bars of wrought-iron were fastened on to
the running-surfaces; these in a measure prolonged the life of
the timbers, but at the same time added to the number of the
pieces and fastenings to be maintained.

Primitive as this description of road appears to be, it was
in use for many years in some parts of the United States of
America, and even after the introduction of the early locomo-
tives; timber was abundant and cheap, and iron in any form
was costly. These long thin strips of iron, placed as in Fig. 232,
had a tendency to become unfastened at the ends, and to curl
up in a very alarming manner, which earned for them the
soubriquet of snake heads. Although iron was only used to
a limited extent in the first instance, it was soon found to be a
much more suitable material for a tram-path than the best
timber. As a next progressive step we find that the tram-plates
were made entirely of iron, of full width for the wheel-tyres,
and with a guiding flange to keep the wheels on the proper
track. In some cases the guiding flanges were placed inside
the wheels, as in Figs. 229 and 230, and in others outside, as
in Fig. 231. With the former plan a thicker covering of gravel
or broken stones could be laid down to protect the sleepers
under the horse-path.

These solid tram-plates were made of cast-iron, that metal
being considered the most convenient for manufacture and the
least liable to suffer loss from rust and oxidization* Another
advantage of the cast-iron was that broken tram-plates could be
melted down and recast at a moderate cost.

Long lengths of these cast-iron plate tramways were laid
down in this country and abroad, and short portions of some
of them remain in existence even to the present day. The}"

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 185

were of immense service for the transportation of heavy
materials, and without their adventitious aid many valuable
collieries and quarries must long have remained idle and unde-
veloped In thus providing a level, smooth, and comparatively
durable wheel-track for the waggons, these tramways became
the fitting pioneers of the great railway system which was
to follow.

Notwithstanding the great superiority of the cast-iron plates
as compared with the former timber beams, much inconvenience
was stjLll caused by gravel and dirt falling on to the wheel-track
and seriously impeding the haulage of the waggons. To over-
come this difficulty the next step taken was to remove the
guiding flange from the tram-plate and transfer it to the wheel,
thus developing and introducing the original flanged wheel.
This was a most important step, and paved the way for other
improvements. The rails, or edge rails, as they were at first
called, were made sufficiently high to allow ample space for
the wheel-flanges to clear the ground, and were secured to
cast-iron chairs placed on wooden cross-sleepers, or in some
cases to stone blocks, as shown in Figs. 233, 234, and 235,
The narrow top of rail, and its height above the horse-path,
effectually prevented the lodgment of gravel or dirt, and the
flanges on the wheels ensured a more even course. From the
irregular and easily choked-up tram-plate, the system changed
to the clean rail and properly defined track. Waggons could
be hauled with greater freedom, and with less wear and tear
to themselves and to the roadway.

At this time the use of the steam-engine was becoming more
general, and a fine field was opened out for its application
as a motive-power on the tramways. Stationary engines, or
wvndvng engines, as they were called, were first employed to
haul , the trucks by means of long ropes passed round revolving
drums, and supported at intervals by grooved pulleys placed
between the rails at suitable distances. In this way fair loads
could be conveyed, and at moderate cost ; but the system was
found to be only suitable for short distances, and it had the
great drawback that horses or other motive-power were still
necessary for sorting or distributing the trucks before and after
their transit by rope haulage.

The next greq,t advance was to place the steam-engine on
wheels, to enable it to haul and accompany the trucks. Crude

186 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

and imperfect as the primitive locomotives must have been, a
very short trial of them served to show that the rails of cast-iron
then in use were totally unfitted to form a trackway for the
newly invented machines. The short fish-bellied cast-iron rails
were made in lengths merely to extend from chair to chair;
they possessed little or no continuity, and from the inherent
brittleness of the material they were constantly breaking and
giving way under the increased weights imposed upon them.
It became necessary to adopt a more reliable material, and
attention was naturally turned to forged or wrought iron. The
suggestion once made was promptly responded to by the iron
makers. Special machinery was designed and constructed, and
very soon wrought-iron rails were manufactured in large
quantities. At first they were made very similar in section
to the fish-belly cast-iron rails, but in lengths to extend over
three or four sleepers. The increased length gave greater
stability to the road, and permitted an increase of speed. The
manifest superiority of the wrought-iron rails led to their
universal adoption, and a great impetus was thus given to
their manufacture. Improvements were made in the machinery
for rolling, and more care was bestowed in the working of
the iron. Changes were made in the section of the rails ; the
fish-belly form was discarded, and a double-head type was
introduced to give more lateral stiffness. At this period in
its history the capabilities of the iron road began to be more
fully recognized, and the supporters of the system foresaw a
great future success, both for the conveyance of passengers as
well as goods. Hitherto the tramroads or railroads had been
used for minerals and merchandize only, but it was now claimed
that on a carefully constructed line, and with improved loco-
motives and rolling-stock, it would be possible to convey
passengers more conveniently and rapidly than by any other
method.

Inventive minds were at work to accomplish so desirable an
object, and public enterprise was forthcoming to provide funds
for the purpose. The successful working of the first passenger
line formed the dawn of a new era in travelling, and similar
lines were soon projected for other places. The wrought-iron
rails in use at this time were generally of a double head form,
and rarely exceeded 12 or 15 feet in length. They were held
by wooden pegs in cast-iron chairs, which were secured to

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

187

-f/o.236 -

188 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

timber cross-sleepers or stone blocks, as shown in Figs. 234
and 235.

They were light in section, and it is stated that the first
rails on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway weighed only
33 lbs. per yard.

The railway system spread rapidly, and the constantly
increasing traffic of all kinds soon necessitated heavier raila
Various sections were devised and tried on different lines, one
of the main objects in view being to obtain a steady road for
the increasing speeds, as well as one of durability. Some of
these sections are shown in Figs. 236 to 258.

Sections 236 to 248 all required chairs to attach them to the
sleepers. The flange rails, 249 to 253, and bridge rails, 254 to
256, also rail 257, were designed to rest direct upon the sleepers
without the necessity of chairs ; and the Barlow rail, 258, with
its great width of 11 or 12 inches, was intended to be used
without sleepers of any kind, the gauge being secured by means
of angle iron tie-bars.

Bails were rolled heavier and longer, and more care was
bestowed on the fastenings ; but, notwithstanding these improve-
ments, the rail-joints still continued to be the weak point in the
road. Even with an extra large joint-chair and stout wooden
key, there was much vertical play at the ends of the rails,
producing objectionable noise and vibration in the running, and
acting detrimentally on all the fastenings. The introduction of
fish-plates at the rail-joints, as shown in Fig. 259, effected
an improvement which cannot be overrated, as by their
adoption such security, speed, and smoothness became attainable
as were not before possible. With a pair of simple rolled
wrought-iron fish-plates, or splices, and four bolts — two through
the end of each rail — a better, smoother, and more effectual
joint was obtained than had ever been produced by the heavy
cast-iron joint-chairs. The system of fishing, or splicing, was
at once admitted to be the simplest and most direct method of
joining the rails; and, although minor detailed improvements
have since been made, the arrangement, as a principle, has never
been superseded. Many miles of fished rails were laid down
with a chair, or support, placed immediately under the joint,
forming the method termed the supported fish-joint; but ex-
perience proved that this mode of application did not give such
a good result as the suspended fish-joint, and the latter plan has
now been adopted on almost all railways.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

189

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190 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

The experience obtained year after year in the wear of rails
under heavy traffic, led to continued improvements both in the
method of rolling and in the selection of the iron to form the
rail-pile; one description of iron was found more suitable for
the head, or running surface, and another for the vertical web ;
but, even with the best machinery and most carefully assorted
materials, high-class wrought-iron rails were liable to lamination,
and long thin strips of iron became detached from the upper, or
wearing, surface. The rail was composed of many layers of iron,
and it was not always possible to ensure that they were all
thoroughly welded, or incorporated together. As early as 1854
a few experimental solid steel rails were laid down on some of
the principal railways, and gave excellent results as to evenness
of wear and durability, but their cost of manufacture rendered
their extended use almost prohibitory.

Compound rails of steel and wrought-iron, as in Fig. 260,
were also tried on several railways, but the practical results
were not such as to lead to a very extended adoption. In
preparing the pile for a compound rail, suitable wrought-iron
bars were placed to form the lower member or flange, the web,
and part of the head, and a slab of steel was placed on the top
to form the upper portion of head, or wearing surface of the
raiL It was intended that in the process of rolling these distinct
layers were to be incorporated together, to form the section
shown in Fig. 260. Doubtless many good wearing rails were
manufactured on this system, but the inherent difference of the
two materials, steel and iron, rendered it very difficult to ensure
such uniform incorporation as would withstand the constant
pounding under heavy, fast traffic. It was not until some years
later that the process of the Bessemer Converter was discovered
and perfected, by means of which steel can be produced in large
quantities far more rapidly and at much less cost than by any
other method hitherto adopted. The introduction of this process
for making steel caused a complete revolution in the material
for rails. Steel which had previously been excluded on account
of its cost, could now be supplied at a moderate price, and,
from its compact and homogeneous character, promised a very
much longer wearing life than the best wrought-iron rails
that had ever been rolled. Experience has shown that these
promises have been fully verified ; wrought-iron rails are things
of the past, steel rails have taken their place, and can now be

RAIL WA Y CONSTRUCTION. 191

purchased at a less price per ton than the iron rails of twenty
years ago.

It is interesting to note that out of the many varied sections
that have been designed, some of which are shown in the
sketches described, only two have practically survived — the bull-
head rail and the flange rail The bull-head rail, Fig. 261, has
grown out of the original double-head rail, which had both the
top and bottom members made to the same section and weight,
with the object that, when the upper table had become so much
worn as to be unfit for further use, then the rail could be turned,
and the other table, or head, brought into service. Experience,
however, proved that turned rails formed a most uneven and
unsatisfactory road, the long contact with the cast-iron chairs
resulted in serious indentations at the rail-seats, rendering the
rails totally unfitted for smooth running. In practice, therefore,
it has been found better to restrict the running wear to one
head only, and to give increased sectional area to that head,
and, at the same time to diminish the sectional area of the
lower member to a corresponding extent, but to retain the same
width, so as to obtain a full bearing surface on the cast-iron
chair. Steel bull-head rails are now adopted on nearly all the
principal lines at home, and on several of the leading lines abroad.

The flange rail, Fig. 265, was designed to give a broad, direct
bearing on the sleepers, and thus avoid the necessity of using
chairs. Rails of this section have been laid down on many of
our lines at home, and are very largely used on the Continent,
in the United States of America, and in our colonies generally.
This section is, also, nearly always adopted for narrow-gauge
railways. Having fewer parts, it makes a cheaper road than
the bull-head rail, but is not considered so strong or suitable for
heavy and fast traffic. Comparing the two rails shown in Figs.
261 and 265, each having exactly the same size and sectional
area in the head, it will be seen that there is more material in
the lower member, or flange, of the one rail than there is in the
lower member of the other; the weight per lineal yard being
79 lbs. for the former and 75 lbs. for the latter. But this small
excess in the weight and cost of the flange rail fplls very short
of the cost of the cast-iron chairs and wooden keys necessary
for the bull-head rail.

Up to the years 1870-1875, it was the common practice to
make the top, or wearing surface of the rail, comparatively

i 9 2 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

round, as shown on the typical sections, Figs. 263 and 267.
The effect of this sharp-curved outline was to limit the first
wearing, or contact surface to a narrow strip along the head of
rail, causing a tendency to groove or form hollows in the treads
of the wheel-tyres. As the rail wore down, the upper surface
assumed a much flatter curve, more closely assimilated to the
section of the wheel-tyre, and giving better results for regular
wear under heavy traffic. Profiting by this experience, the rails
of the present day are made much flatter on the head than they
were formerly, as will be noted from the sections shown on
Figs. 261, 266, and 269, which represent types of rails now
actually in use on some of the principal railways.

In designing a rail for any given line, the section and weight
of the rail must necessarily be influenced by the weight of the
rolling-stock passing over it, and the amount of the traffic it
has to sustain.

The engine, being the heaviest vehicle in the train, will give
the measure of the greatest weight on one pair of wheels.
Engines vary considerably on different lines, ranging from ten
tons to eighteen tons or more on one pair of driving-wheels,
according to the description of work to be performed

Very often secondary or branch lines, with comparatively
light traffic, have steep gradients, necessitating engines as heavy
as on a main trunk line ; but the number of trains on the former
may not exceed twenty per day, while on the latter they may
amount to one hundred and fifty or two hundred. It is evident
that the rail which would last for very many years under the
small traffic, would have a very short life under the frequent
traffic. Hence the reason why it is found expedient to give a
large increase of material in the heads of rails carrying the
heavy, constant train service of many of our main lines.

Figs. 261, 262, and 263 are sections of rails in use on lines
having heavy engines and fast trains, but with a comparatively
small daily train service, and Figs. 264, 266, 267, and 268 are
sections of rails carrying the heavy, fast, and incessant traffic of
some of our leading lines.

On lines having small traffic, slow speeds, easy gradients, and
comparatively light engines, a reduced section of rail may be
adopted ; but in doing so it is well to allow for any probable
future development of traffic which might cause the introduction
of heavier engines.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

193

Figs. 269 to 272 show sections of rails varying from 72 to
60 lbs. per yard, also a section of a 45-lb. steel flange-rail, much
used on 3-foot narrow-guage railways.

Valuable and interesting statistics have from time to time
been recorded, with a view to ascertain the average life of a
steel rail, by obtaining the number of million tons of train load
which it would sustain before it became worn down to such an
extent as to be no longer of service on the line. It will be readily
understood that the rate of wear of a steel rail will depend not
only on the weight and section of the rail itself, but on the class
of rolling-stock, and the description of traffic it has to carry. It
will also be largely affected by the circumstances of whether the
line is on a level or on an incline.

The writer has had careful measurement taken of the wear of
the steel flange-rail (Fig. 265), 79 lbs. per yard, and the result
shows that with a traffic not exceeding twenty-four goods and
passenger trains per day, one-tenth of an inch was worn off the
top of the rail in ten years on the comparatively level portions
of the line ; but that the same amount of one-tenth of an inch was
worn off in six years by the same traffic, on the same district of the
line, in places where the gradients varied from 1 in 100 to 1 in 70.
The heavy pounding of the engines, and the working of the breaks
tend very materially to shorten the life of the rails on the inclines.

As now made, the steel rails manufactured under the con-
verter process exhibit great similarity in the analysis of their
component parts; at the same time it is well known that a
slight preponderance or reduction of one or more of the con-
stituents will result in making the steel hard or soft The
following statement gives the analysis of twelve steel rails, six of
which were classed as hard steel, and six as soft steel : —

Habd Steel. — Analysis of Six Steel Bails which broke either nr Testing

ob is Line.

Carbon

Silicon

Sulphur

Phosphorus

Manganese

Iron ...

1.

2.
0-51

3.

056

4.

5.

047

6.

1

1

047

043

0-54

1 009

0*08

0*08

0-09

0095

0121

006

0-06

0-06

006

0054

0056

0-07

0-06

006

008

008

0-057

1-23

1-10

090

123

115

1-26

9808

9819

98*84

9811

98151
100-000

97-966

100-00

f

10000

100-00

10000

100-000

194

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Soft Steel. — Analysis of Six Steel Bails which stood the Test well, asd
bent freely without showing ant slgs of fracture.

Carbon

Silioon

Sulphur

Phosphorus

Manganese

Iron •..

1.

2.

3.

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035

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0-34

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0061

0062

0061

<H>61

... \ 0-061

0-061

0061

0063

0062

... I 0-870

0-875

0-866

0-864

0-800

...

1

98*597

98-543

98-571

98592

98-657

100000

100*000

100000

1

100 000

100-000

6.

0*250
0-069
O046
0-058
0-636
98-941

100-000

Many rails which have been broken in the line under traffic
have been analyzed, and proved to be hard steel ; while others,
which have been bent into all sorts of shapes, but not broken
during accidents or derailments, have also been tested, and
proved to be of soft steeL

Some engineers are advocates for a hard steel rail, and claim
for it greater durability and longer wear ; but even supposing
such hard rail should possess a slight superiority over the soft
rail, it is well to consider whether such assumed advantage is not
obtained at the risk of incurring greater liability to fracture.
It must be borne in mind that a rail, once placed in the road, is
exposed to all the changes of temperature from heat to frost, and
has frequently to sustain increased strains arising from loose
sleepers, where the gravel or ballast has been disturbed during
heavy raina

When writing a specification for steel rails, it is usual to state
the number of tons per square inch in tensile strain which the
steel must be able to sustain without fracture, and also to
stipulate that some of the rails will be tested by the falling-
weight test. In the latter test a rail is placed, say at 3 feet
bearings, and in a similar position to what it would occupy in
the road, and a weight of eighteen hundredweight, or one ton or
more, according to section of rail, is allowed to fall from a height
of 9 or 10 feet, on to the rail, at the centre between the bearings.
With three blows from the given height, the rail must not bend
or deflect more than a specified amount. The falling- weight
test is, perhaps, rather a rough and ready one ; but it is always
reassuring to prove that the rails will withstand such a severe
ordeal, as it must be a very exceptional circumstance in the
routine of railway working which will produce a blow or shock

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 195

equal in effect to the falling-weight test. The rails form such
an important part of the trackway, almost the very basis on
which the traffic has to depend for its safety, that, apart from the
question of wear, no effort should be spared to ensure their
thorough soundness and efficiency.

In modern practice rails are generally used in lengths vary-
ing from 25 feet to 30 feet. There is no difficulty in making
them longer ; but any excess over the above lengths is found to
be inconvenient for transport, for handling in the line, and for
making the necessary allowance for contraction and expansion
at the joints. Steel rails are generally marked on the vertical
web with the initials of the railway company, the name of the
manufacturer, and the year in which they are rolled. This is
done by cutting out the letters in the last pair of rolls through
which the rails have to pass before they are completed, so that on
the rails themselves the letters stand out in raised characters,

thus: G.N.R.I C. CAMMELL & C? 1896. In this

manner the rails always carry for reference the name of maker
and date.

When comparing the relative merits of the flange-rail and
bull-head-rail permanent way, the question of strength and
durability must be considered, as well as that of economy. The
flange-rail road has undoubtedly fewer parts and fastenings, and
when the flange is wide, the sleepers sound, and the rail securely
held down to the sleepers, the result is a smooth running road.
So long as the rail can be maintained in a constant close contact
with the wooden sleeper, the running is almost noiseless, the
jarring on the rails being absorbed or taken off by the timber ;
but so soon as a little space or play takes place between, the
spikes or other fastenings and the upper surface of the flange,
the rail obtains a certain amount of rise, or lift, which comes into
action upon the passing of every rolling load, producing un-
steadiness in the rail and a clattering noise in the running. A
flange of 5 inches, on a sleeper 10 inches wide, has a bearing
surface of 50 square inches (assuming the sleeper to be square
cut, without any wane on the edges), and this area of 50 inches
is only about half of the bearing surface on the sleeper of an
ordinary modern cast-iron chair.

Main-line locomotives have weights on the driving-wheels
varying from 16 to 18 and 20 tons. Taking 18 tons as repre-
senting a common practice for a large express engine, would

196 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

give 9 tons as the weight imposed on each rail by each driving-
wheeL Assuming this weight to be distributed over three
sleepers would give a dead weight of 3 tons per sleeper, or
134 lbs. on every square inch of the 50 square inches of surface,
or rail-bearing area, on each sleeper, without taking into account
the effect of the blow or percussion from the rolling load. The
presence of a loose sleeper throws additional weight on the
adjoining sleepers, and increases the destructive influence on
the timber. The constant application of heavy rolling loads on
a small bearing area of timber crushes and wears away the
timber very rapidly. The small bearing surface of the flange
rail expedites the cutting down into the sleeper, and as the rail
beds itself further and further into the wood, the fastenings
must be driven or screwed down to follow the flange. Spikes
may be driven down, but the further they go they have a less
thickness of timber for a bed, and therefore a diminished hold.
Crab bolts are apt to become rusted or ironbound, so that, they
cannot be screwed further, and must then be taken out and
replaced with new ones. The narrower the flange, the more
rapidly does the rail-seat cut down to a thickness inconsistent
with safety. The sharp edge of the flange-rail has a tendency
to cut a channel in the spike, and it is not at all an unusual
occurrence to find strong square shanked dog-spikes, which have
been thus cut into to the extent of a third or even half their
thickness. The comparative narrow flange places the spikes at
great disadvantage in point of leverage for holding down, and
this weakness is soon made manifest, particularly on curves,
where additional crab bolts or other devices are rendered neces-
sary to counteract the tendency of the rail to rock and tilt over
sideways. When the head of the rail cannot be kept in its
proper position, the gauge becomes widened, and an irregular
sinuous motion takes place in the running of the train. This
drawback has been found to be a serious matter where light
narrow flange rails have been adopted to carry comparatively
heavy, short wheel-base engines. In some cases wrought-iron
sole-plates, or even cast-iron bracket-chairs, have been introduced
to give more bearing surface on the sleeper and increased support
to the rail, but neither of the two methods give the same simple
complete hold to the rail that is obtained by the cast-iron chair
for the bull-head rail

On the other hand, the modern cast-iron chair for the bull-

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 197

head rail has at least double the bearing surface on the sleeper
to that of the flange-rail seat, so that under the same circum-
stances of rolling load as above described, the weight of 134 lbs.
per square inch would be reduced to half, or 67 lbs. The
greater length given to the chair effectually prevents any
rocking action on the part of the rail, and reduces to a minimum
any lifting action on the spike. A good fitting chair — especially
when keyed on the inside — provides a most effectual support to
the rail both vertically and laterally, and maintains the rail to
accurate gauge. By giving proper clearance space at the tops of
the chair-jaws, a bull-head rail can be taken out by simply
driving out the wooden keys, and a new rail inserted without in
any way disturbing the chairs or spikes. To change a flange
rail necessitates the slackening and removal of a large number of
the spikes and crab bolts.

As the sleepers under the chair road suffer less from the
crushing of the timber, they have a much longer life in the line,
and remain serviceable until they are incapacitated from decay.
This is a very important item in places where timber sleepers
are expensive. The steadiness of the chair prolongs the efficiency
of the spikes.

As the actual wearing portion of the rail is the head, or wheel
contact surface, a liberal area — consistent with the expected
traffic — must be given to that part, whether for a bull-head rail
or a flange rail By comparing the two sections, Figs. 273 and
274, the one for an 85-lb. bull-head rail, and the other for a
1004b. flange rail, it will be seen from the dotted lines that
the heads of each rail are almost identical, the difference of
15 lbs. being disposed of in the flange of the heavier rail.
Practically, therefore, we have 15 lbs. per yard extra weight
of steel in the rail, on the one hand, as against the cast-iron
chairs and steadier permanent way on the other.

For lines where the traffic is small, weights light, speeds low,
and economy of construction imperative, the flange-rail perma-
nent way will be very suitable.

The writer has had long mileages of each description of
permanent way under his charge, both at home and abroad, for
many years, and the result of his experience has shown that,
although a fairly good road may be made with flange rails, still,
for constant, heavy, fast traffic, the bull-head rail with cast-iron
chairs makes a much stronger, more durable, and better perma-
nent way than any flange railroad.

198

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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Briefly summarized, the principal advantages and disadvan-
tages of the two kinds of rails stand as follows : —

ADVANTAGES.

Bull-head BalL

Large bearing surface of chair upon
the sleeper, and greater stability of the
rail

Longer life of wooden sleeper.

Impossibility of rail tilting over out-
ward*.

Facility for changing a rail without
disturbing the fastenings in the sleepers.

Easier to maintain, owing to less
disturbing strains on the fastening*.

A bull-head rail is more readily set
or laid to follow line of curve.

In most eases the one set of chairs
will serve for a second set of rails.

Perfect strsightness of rail: it is
very rare to find a crooked ball-head
rail.

Easier to roll, and more likely to
obtain uniformity of steeL

Flange Bail

Fewness of parts, and less cost
Smaller quantity of ballast required
to cover up the foot of rail.

More lateral stiffness than the bull-
head rail.

DISADVANTAGES.

Bull-head Bail.

Greater cost.

More ballast required to cover up
the rail.

Less lateral jtttfuess than the flange
rail.

Flange BalL

The small rail-seat area on sleeper
throws great crushing weight on the
timber.

Shorter life of wooden sleepers from
the cutting down of rail-seats.

The edge of flange outs the spikes
after a few years.

The undulation of the rail under
trains tends to raise the spikes, and
causes lateral movement in the rails.

More difficult to maintain, in conse-
quence of greater tendency of the fasten-
ings to work loose.

Difficulty in getting flange rails
straightened laterally.

More difficult to set to follow regular
line of curves.

More difficult to roll, and less likely
to obtain uniformity of steel.

Tramway Kails. — Tramways on streets or public roads are
now universally recognized as important branches of the railway
principle. Their smoothness of movement, increased accommoda-
tion, and many other advantages as compared with the old road
omnibus, render it no longer necessary to call for special advocacy
when there is a possibility of their introduction. They occupy

2<x> RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

a position so thoroughly appreciated by the public that any
check on their reasonable use or extension would be considered
as detrimental to the interests of the travelling community.

As a rule, these tramways are laid down on streets or roads
previously constructed for the ordinary road traffic, where all the
preliminary work of earth filling, bridges, drainage, etc, has
already been accomplished, and there only remains the selection
and laying down of the rails or permanent way over which the
tram-cars will have to run. The description and weight of perma-
nent way to be adopted will depend largely upon the weight of
the cars to be used and the system of motive-power decided
upon for the haulage — whether horses, steam, cable, or electricity.
As the portion of the streets or public roads along which the
tramway has to be laid will, in all probability, have to be occu-
pied and traversed by all kinds of vehicles besides the tram-cars,
it is absolutely necessary that the permanent way for the tram-
way should be of such description as to require the least possible
amount of adjustment of fastenings or opening out of the road-
way for repairs. Where the entire width of the street, including
the space between the tram-rails, is paved with stone setts, the
opening out of even a short length for repairs is tedious and
costly, and causes considerable obstruction to the street traffic.
It is most important, therefore, that the rail and its fastenings
should not only be strong enough for its own tram service and
the carts and drays which will pass over and across the track
in all directions, but it must possess the minimum necessity for
disturbance.

Figs. 275 to 279 are sketches of a few of the many types
which have been brought into use in various places.

Where the public roads are wide, and a space can be set apart
at the side for the special use of the tramway, the arrangement
shown in Fig. 275 will be simple and efficient- It is very similar
to an ordinary railway permanent way with the ballast filled in
flush with the top of the rails. The rails are shown as flange
or flat-bottom rails, fished together at the joints, and properly
secured to transverse sleepers of wood, iron, or steel. The space
between and outside the rails is filled in with small-sized broken
stone ballast or good clean gravel, and forms an even surface,
over which animals or cattle may pass without risk of being
thrown down.

Fig. 276 represents a system which was laid down extensively,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.
— F1C.2TS — \

— 278— LZ.

202 RAIL WA Y CONSTRUCTION.

especially for horse tramways, but not proving efficient, has been
superseded by other types of a stronger and more durable descrip-
tion. The rail was rolled with a continuous groove to provide
clearance for the flanges of the car-wheels, and the sides of the
rail were turned down so as to fit over the longitudinal timber
sleeper, to which the rail was secured by staple-dogs, as shown.
Cast-iron chairs, spiked on to wooden cross-sleepers, held the
longitudinal sleepers in position. The wooden sleepers were
favourable for smooth running, but the section of the rail, practi-
cally a light channel-iron laid on the flat, was most unsuitable
for carrying weight or for making a proper joint. Experience
proved this road to be very difficult to maintain in good order
for easy traction. The staple-dogs worked loose after a little
time, and the rail, having scarcely any vertical stiffness, rose and
fell during the passage of every car- wheel, resulting in most
uneven joints and a clattering roadway.

With the view to obtain a stronger and more permanent
support for the rail than the longitudinal timber sleeper last
described, various forms of cast-iron chairs were devised. Fig.
277 represents one of these patterns. The rail, which is of T-
section with a continuous wheel-flange groove, is secured to the
cast-iron chair by the cross-pin, as shown. Although this cross-
pin may in time work a little loose, it cannot work out, being
kept in position by the paving-setts on each side. The cast-iron
chairs are placed at convenient distances, and being set in a bed
of concrete, do not require cross-sleepers or tie-bars. This type
makes a strong road, but the rail-joints cannot be made so even
or efficient as with the more modern form of rail.

Bail manufacturers are now able to roll a section of rail com-
bining the vertical stiffness of the ordinary flange, or flat-bottom,
rail with the running-head and continuous wheel-flange groove,
considered the most suitable for heavy tramway traffic The
introduction of this section of rail has contributed greatly to the
increased efficiency and durability of the permanent way for
street traffic ; and as the ends of the rails can be secured by
ordinary fish-plates, there is the great acquisition of even joints
and increased smoothness in the running of the tramcars. This
rail can be rolled of various weights to suit the rolling loads.
On some tram-lines a moderately heavy section has been adopted,
and secured to transverse sleepers of rolled iron or steel laid on a
bed of concrete. On others similar rolled metal sleepers have

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 203

been used, but laid longitudinally. For some descriptions of
traffic a much heavier section of rail has been used, having a base
sufficiently wide to provide ample bearing on a bed of concrete
without the intervention of either transverse or longitudinal
sleepers.

Fig. 278 is a sketch of the modern rail as laid down on a
rolled steel transverse sleeper, the rail being held in position
either by turned-up clips, wedges, bolts, or any of the devices in
use for similar duty in the rolled-steel sleepers for ordinary rail-
way permanent way.

Fig. 279 shows a modern rail of a heavier section, with a wide
flange resting direct on a continuous, bed of concrete. The gauge
is maintained by bar-iron tie-bars placed vertically so as to fit in
between the courses of the paving-setts, the ends being forged
and screwed to pass through holes in the vertical web of rail, and
secured in position by nuts. Both in this, and in type Fig. 278,
ordinary fish-plates are adopted at the rail-joints, as indicated by
dotted lines.

In the last two examples above described all the materials
are of the most durable description, and the least liable to wear
or decay, but it will be necessary to guard against making the
fastenings and the bars too light for the duty they have to per-
form. There should be ample material in the head of the rail to
allow of a fair wearing down, and the continuous flange groove
should be sufficiently deep to meet this wearing away without
causing the wheel-flanges to strike the bottom of the groove.

Fish-plates. — In the first examples of the newly invented
wrought-iron fish-plates they were made to the depth to fit in
between the upper and lower tables of the rail, as shown in
Fig. 280, a small space or clearance being left between the inner
sides and the vertical web of the rail Ordinary nuts and bolts
were used in most cases, but in some instances one of the fish-
plates was tapped, as in Fig. 281, forming one long continuous
nut, and in others both fish-plates were tapped, as in Fig. 282,
and right and left handed bolts were used. Neither of the two
arrangements of tapped fish-plates proved sufficiently successful
as to lead to their general adoption. When the bolts became
rusted in, or iron-bound, it was found to be almost impossible to
remove them without permanently damaging the fish-plates.
With the four right and left handed bolts the operation of
tightening, or removing, the fish-plates was very tedious, as each

204

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 205

bolt had to be turned a very little at a time, one after the other.
Independent bolts and nuts, either of iron or steel, are now
universally used ; plain holes, with sufficient allowance for work
and expansion, being punched or drilled in the rails and fish-
plates.

For many years the depth of the fish-plates continued to be
made the same as the space between the upper and lower members
of the rail, as shown in Fig. 280 ; but with the heavier loads and
higher speeds of our modern railway working it has been found
necessary to strengthen the joints by providing deeper or stiffer
fish-plates, as shown in Figs. 283, 284, and 285. For bull-head
rails the fish-plates have been brought down underneath the
lower table, and in some cases extended down sufficiently far to
admit of a second set of fish-bolts under the raiL For flange
rails some fish-plates are used simply of the form of angle irons,
and others have the angle portion carried out beyond the end of
the flange, or foot of rail, and then turned down vertically to a
depth of an inch or more below the rail. The latter makes a
very strong fish-plate.

Fish-plates, like rails, are now almost universally made of
steel.

The efficiency and durability of a fish-plate depends materi-
ally upon its angle of contact with the under side of the head
of the rail, and the extent of its contact surface. It would be
an error to suppose there is little or no wearing away in fish-
plates, as in reality there is very considerable wear, and especially
in rails of lighter section. If the under side of the head of rail
has a curved outline, as in the rail in Fig. 287, there will be
some difficulty in ensuring a perfect fit in the fish-plates ; the
curve of the one may not quite correspond to the curve of the
other, and the contact surface will be very small. It is better to
make these contact surfaces in straight lines, and to a wide
angle rather than to an acute angle. In Fig. 288 the under side
of head and corresponding top of fish-plates are set at an acute
angle, and fish-plates to this pattern will soon wear up to the
vertical web of rail, and cause a loose noisy joint.

In Fig. 284, showing a different type of rail, the contact
surfaces are set at a very much wider angle, and will allow much
more wear before the fish-plates can work close up to the web of
the rail.

When once the fish-plates are close up to the web, the best

206 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

and tightest bolts cannot prevent the vertical play in the ends
of the rails.

A hammering sound will announce each successive drop of
the wheels from one rail to the other, more distinctly, perhaps,
at slow speeds than when travelling quickly, but existing equally
under both conditions. The unpleasant jarring sensation is
annoying to the passengers, and has a straining, loosening effect
on ail the bolts and fastenings. Unless the fish-plates have
a thorough continuous bearing against the upper and lower
shoulders of both the rails, it will be impossible to obtain a
smooth even joint. A road may have good rails, good chairs,
and good sleepers, but if the fish-plates are worn and loose the
entire permanent way may be pronounced faulty, and all on
account of a minor defect which can be easily remedied. With
strong, properly fitting fish-plates, the position of the joints
should be imperceptible when passing over them in a train.

The writer has had many miles of line where the fish-plates
have worn hard up to the rail web. In cases where the rails
were good, with the prospect of a long life, new fish-plates of
suitable section have been provided. In others, thin wrought-
iron plate liners, ^ or ^ of an inch thick, have been inserted,
as in Fig. 291, so as to bring the plates well out from the web,
and allow the fish-bolts and fish-plates to exercise the free
gripping action which is absolutely necessary to prevent the
vertical rising and falling of the rail-ends during the passage of
a rolling load. Fish-plate liners of the above description have
given excellent results, and have restored the efficiency of the
fish-plates for several years.

Chairs. — All rails which partake of the double head section,
or have a base not wider than the head, require supports or
carriers to attach them to the sleepers, and to secure them in
their proper upright position. In the days of the original edge
rails, at the commencement of the railway era, these supports
were very appropriately termed chairs, and this name has
now been adopted in all parts of the world. Cast-iron is the
most suitable material for railways chairs, being much cheaper
in cost and less liable to loss or deterioration from rust than
wrought-iron. Cast-iron chairs can be formed to suit any section
of rail, and from the nature of the material they cannot be bent
or twisted out of shape so as to interfere with the gauge or cant
They may break during an accident or derailment, but the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 207

fracture can be detected at once, and the broken chair quickly-
replaced.

The chair performs the very important duty of distributing
the weight of the rolling load on the upper surface of the sleeper.
If the under side or base of the chair is small, and the rolling
load large, the chair will very rapidly wear or imbed itself into
the wood of the sleeper, shortening the life of the latter in a very-
palpable manner. The short narrow chair naturally gives less
stability than the larger and broader chair. The chair shown in
Fig. 292, which was much used for 75 lb. rails some twenty
years ago, has much less base area and stability than the chair
shown in Fig. 293, adopted for rails of a similar weight in the
present day. The former had a bearing surface on the sleeper
of only 53 square inches, as compared with 89 square inches in
the latter. The base area of the chair must be in proportion to
the weight it has to carry and distribute, and it would be false
economy to stint the surface area of one of the details which
influences so materially the stability and durability of the
permanent way.

As will be seen in Figs. 294, 295, and 296, the chairs at present
used for 80, 85, and 90 lb. rails have a much larger bearing
surface than the chair shown in Fig. 292.

With the wider chair, a much longer and better seat can be
given to the under table of rail, and a greater length of jaw for
holding the wooden key. The longer the rail-seat the steadier
the rail and the smoother the running.

The keys are generally made of hard wood, sometimes com-
pressed by a special process, cut slightly taper, or wedge, shape,
and driven in between the jaw of the chair and the vertical web
of the rail. On some railways the key is placed outside the
rail, as in Fig. 297, and on others inside the rail, as in Fig. 298.
The latter method possesses many advantages over the former.
The outer jaw of the chair can be brought well up to the under
side of head of rail, giving the rail more lateral support and
better means of preserving the correct cant ; and, as in this chair
the outer jaw permanently fixes the gauge, the working out of one
or more of the keys does not leave the rail exposed to be forced
outwards and widen the gauge, as in the case with dropped keys in
outside keying. Another and very important advantage of inside
keying is that platelayers, when inspecting the road by walking
between the rails, can readily examine the keys on both sides.

208

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 209

Chairs have been made, as in Fig. 299, with a recess in the
rail-seat, to hold a piece of prepared wood, or other suitable
semi-elastic material, the object being to provide a rest, or
cushion, softer and more yielding than the cast-iron. The idea
looks well in theory, but in practice the pounding on the rail
compresses or crushes the wood lower and lower into the recess,
slackened keys have to be tightened, and when the wood has
been worn or crushed away down to the level of the stop ribs,
A, A, the under side of rail has no longer any seat, or rest, beyond
the two narrow ribs of cast-iron. These afford such a very
limited support that the rail becomes notched, and produces a
very rough clattering road. It is a very simple matter to take
out an old key and put in a new one, but to replace a wooden
cushion in a chair recess involves the entire removal of either
the rail or the chair. Chairs with wooden cushions have not
been adopted to any great extent, the tendency of modern
practice being to reduce as far as possible the number of parts of
the permanent way, and to provide those parts with ample
bearing or contact surfaces.

Although the general practice has been to cast the chairs in
one piece, chairs have been made in two pieces, as in Fig. 300,
fastened together and to the rail by a bolt passing through the
latter, the castings being secured to the sleeper with spikes. At
first sight this pattern of chair appeared to possess some features
in its favour. The castings were simple, keys were dispensed
with altogether, and the under side of rail was not in contact
with the cast-iron. A short experience, however, proved that
the drawbacks far outweighed the apparent advantages. Holes
for the through-bolts had to be punched at fixed distances in the
rails, and although this could be readily done at the works, for
the general use on the line it was necessary to resort to the
tedious process of drilling by hand for a large number of holes on
curves, and for rails cut to form closers.

Sleepers. — Wood possesses so many suitable qualities that we
can readily understand why it was early selected as the proper
material for sleepers. It can be cut to any size and shape, holes
can be bored, spikes can be driven, and bolts can be screwed
into it without any difficulty and without causing injury to the
timber, while the semi-elastic nature of wood absorbs the vibra-
tion of the rails and fastenings, and provides a sound-deadening
seat so conducive to smooth running. Its only drawback is that

p

210 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

it is perishable from wear and decay. Were it not for this
defect, railway sleepers of wood might be considered as simply
perfect

With a view to greater permanency and durability, stone
sleepers were tried. These consisted of square blocks of good
hard stone, measuring about 2 feet wide each way and 12
inches thick. Holes were cut in the stone, and plugs of hard
wood inserted. The cast-iron chairs were then placed on the top
of the blocks, and the iron spikes driven through the chair-holes
into the wooden plugs. The elements of permanency were there
certainly, but a rougher road it would be impossible to conceive.
The stone was solid and unyielding, there was a total absence of
softness and elasticity, and the harsh noisy effect produced when
running over the stone-block road veiy soon became intolerable.
Stone-block sleepers were found to be a failure, and were all
removed. On some of our old lines, numbers of them, with the
chair marks plainly visible, may be still seen in loading banks,
buildings, sea walls, and other works for which they were never
originally intended, but for which their size and weight render
them very appropriate.

Wooden sleepers are used in two forms, transverse and
longitudinal In the former, as in Fig. 301, the sleepers not
only carry the rails, but also preserve the gauge ; in the latter
as in Fig. 302, the longitudinal sleepers only support the rails,
additional timbers and strong fastenings being necessary to
maintain the gauge.

Longitudinal sleepers have been used to a large extent for
bridge rails, it being supposed that with the broad continuous
sleeper a lighter and shallower rail could be adopted, which
would be equally efficient as a heavier rail on cross-sleepers.
Excellent running roads have been made with longitudinal
sleepers, notwithstanding the difficulty of making a good bridge-
rail joint ; but it is well to bear in mind that almost all the lines
which originally adopted this form of permanent way have since
reverted to the ordinary cross-sleeper road. The longitudinal
sleeper road is an expensive road to lay down and maintain.
The main pieces are of large scantling, must be of good quality
of timber, and are consequently costly. The cross-pieces, or
transomes, must be carefully fitted and secured with heavy iron-
work. Where there is much traffic, the removal and renewal of
one of the long timbers is much more difficult than the renewal

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 211

of several ordinary cross-sleepers. Again, decay may take place
on only one portion of a main timber, but there is no alternative
but to remove the entire piece.

For gauges varying from 4 feet 8} inches to 5 feet 3 inches,
cross-sleepers are cut to the length of 8 feet 11 inches, and are
generally rectangular in section, as in Fig. 303, measuring 10
inches in width by 5 inches in thickness. On some of the
lighter railways with small traffic, sleepers are often used only 9
inches wide by 4£ inches thick, while occasionally on some
lines, and in places where there is exceptionally heavy and con-
stant traffic, sleepers 12 inches wide by 6 inches thick are
adopted.

Half-round sleepers, as in Fig. 304, are used on many lines
because they are cheaper. In some cases the flat side of the
sleeper is placed downwards, and the rail or chair is fastened
into an adzed seat cut in the round side ; and in the others the
round side is placed downwards, and the flat side of the sleeper
carries the rail or chair. Triangular sleepers, as in Fig. 305, have
also been used, made by cutting the blocks diagonally, so as to
obtain the greatest possible width. They were laid with the
flat side upwards, and the apex downwards. They were difficult
to keep packed, and have not been adopted to any great extent.

With the exception of a limited number of larch and fir
sleepers grown in the country, most of the sleepers for our
home railways are imported from the Baltic They are brought
over in logs, or blocks, each 8 feet 11 inches long, some square and
others circular in section, and when sawn down the middle, each
block forms two sleepers.

The preservation of timber from decay is a subject that very
early occupied the attention of engineers and all those interested
in railways. A railway sleeper is particularly exposed to
deterioration, the lower portion being surrounded with moist
ballast, whilst the top portion is more or less uncovered — two
different conditions in the same piece of timber. Several
processes have been tried, such as Kyanizing, Burnetizing,
Boucherizing, etc., but the system which has given the best
results, and is now almost universally adopted, is that known
as creosoting. This method consists of forcing liquid creosote,
under considerable pressure, into sleepers or railway timbers
which have been prepared or dried by ordinary natural seasoning
or by special artificial means. Creosote is a dark, oily liquid,

212 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

distilled from coal tar, varying in its composition according to
the quality of the coal from which it is obtained, and ranging in
its specific gravity from 11*08 to 10*28.

Creosote oils of light specific gravity were at one time in
favour, but experience proved that, to some extent, the light oils
were volatile and also soluble in water, and that heavy rains
washed . out the constituents which were essential for the
preservation of the timber. On the other hand, by heating the
heavy oils and using high pressure the napthaline which is
dissolved only by the heat, is forced into the wood, fills the pores,
and solidifies.

Creosote is obtainable in large quantities, at prices varying
from twopence to fourpence per gallon, according to the demand
and cost of production. Newly delivered sleepers or railway
timber contain so much sap or water that it is impossible to
force a sufficient quantity of creosote into them until they are
properly seasoned or dried.

The seasoning is generally arranged by sawing each block
into two sleepers, and then stacking the sleepers on edge in tiers,
leaving a space of four or five inches between each of them for
a proper circulation of air. The sleepers should then be left for
nine to twelve months to season, although more may be necessary
in some cases if the blocks were particularly wet at the time
they were sawn.

When ready for the process the sleepers are placed in the
creosoting cylinder, which is generally about 60 feet long by
6 feet in diameter with semi-spherical ends. One of the ends is
fitted with strong hinges and fastenings, and forms the doorway.
The sleepers are packed carefully inside, and the doorway made
tight The machinery is then set to work to exhaust the air
from the cylinder and allow the creosote to flow in amongst the
sleepers. When the cylinder is full the force-pumps are started
to force in more creosote up to the pressure prearranged and
regulated by the safety-valve, in some cases 100, 110, or 120 lbs.
per square inch. The creosote should be heated to 112° or
120° Fah., to dissolve the napthaline and reduce all the com-
ponent parts to a thoroughly fluid condition.

The success of creosoting depends almost entirely upon the
effectual seasoning of the timber. Only a very small quantity
of creosote can be forced into wet or unseasoned sleepers, even
with the best machinery and exceptionally high pressures, while

ml m im u, J., ill. -UiLH- "_J.i ■-■

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 213

a thoroughly dry sleeper will readily absorb from 2 J to 3 gallons-
More could be forced into the dry sleeper if necessary, but a little
consideration will show there would be no advantage in doing
so. In railway sleepers there are two elements of destruction at
work — one the decay of the timber, and the other abrasion or
wearing away of the wood itself from the constant pounding of
the passing loads.

More particularly does this wearing-away take place with
the flange, or bridge, rails, their distributed bearing surface on
the sleeper being less than the cast-iron chairs.

A thoroughly well-creosoted 5-inch sleeper laid originally
with a thickness of 4| inches in the centre of rail-seat, as in Fig.
306, will wear down 1£ inches, the timber remaining quite
sound.

The writer has had to take out thousands of sleepers where
the seats of the flange, or bridge, rails had been pounded or worn
down so deep into the wood as to leave too small a thickness of
timber to carry the rail with safety. These sleepers had to be
taken out of the road, not on account of decay, but because they
were actually worn down too thin to be of service. They had
done their work well for a long series of years, and were perfectly
sound when taken out. No increased quantity of creosote would
have made them last longer, and any increased quantity of
creosote would have been waste.

Two and three quarter gallons of creosote is a very good and
suitable quantity for a 10 foot by 5 inch rectangular sleeper, but
not more than half this quantity can be forced in if the sleeper
is wet or unseasoned.

Sleeper-blocks are generally cut from the upper part of the
tree, and do not therefore consist of the best portion of the
timber, yet sleepers made from the soft, coarse-grained Baltic
wood, properly creosoted, will last from twelve to eighteen years
in the line in this country, while uncreosoted they would perish
from decay in six or seven. The benefit is great when, by
adding from eightpence to a shilling for the cost of creosoting,
the life of the sleeper may be doubled or trebled. Of course,
there are countries, like the far west of America, where the lines
pass through vast forests, and where sleepers may be had for the
mere cost of cutting. Creosoting in those places would be out
of the question, and would cost four or five times the value of
the plain sleeper. It is found, also, that in tropical countries and

214 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

in dry climates at high altitudes creosote loses its efficiency, and
in those districts the best creosoted soft-wood sleeper perishes
from a species of dry rot in three or four years. Where wood
sleepers have to be used in tropical climates it is better to obtain
them from the timber of the district, although in many cases
suitable trees are difficult to procure and the cost of land
transport is very heavy.

The soft cushion-like effect of a sound, properly packed
wooden sleeper contributes so largely to form an easy, smooth-
running road, that so long as they can be obtained at a moderate
cost, and are fairly durable, wooden sleepers will always be
preferred to those of any other material. The great question
will be the supply. Creosoting and other wood-preserving
processes have done much to prolong the life of sleepers, but the
rapidly increasing extent of mileage throughout the world,
together with the enormous number of sleepers required annually
for maintenance or renewals, must before very long severely tax
the powers of supply.

In the great timber-producing territories the axe is often
heard, but the planter is rarely seen. Vast forests are cleared
away, and their sites transformed into busy towns or cultivated
lands ; and unless some great change takes place, and planting be
carried out on a large scale, some other material will have to be
adopted for this important item of our permanent way.

Appearances would indicate that at no very distant date
iron or steel will take a conspicuous part in the formation of
future railway sleepers.

More than thirty years ago several descriptions of cast-iron
sleepers were introduced into notice and tried on some of our
leading home railways. Cast-iron was at that time considered
more suitable for the purpose than wrought iron, as it was very
much less costly in price, and could be readily worked into any
desired form or size, with the advantage that the castings would
all be duplicates of one another.

Figs. 307 to 313 show some of the types that were designed
and laid down in the road. In Fig. 307 the sleeper and chairs
were all cast together in one piece ; the rail was held in its place
by wooden keys, and the gauge of the line was maintained by
transverse wrought-iron tie-bars. The sketch represents one
of the sleepers used at the rail-joints, and has three chairs, the
larger one in the centre being for the support of the ends of

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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216 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

the rails. This arrangement was the same as was then in use
on the ordinary wood-sleeper road, where an extra large chair
was placed at the rail-joints, and was the most approved method
for many years before fish-plates were introduced. The inter-
mediate sleepers were shorter, and had only two chairs.

Fig. 308 represents a long, flat, cast-iron sleeper made in two
halves, bolted together just below the under side of rail at each
of the three chair-seats. The rail was gripped and held in
position without the use of wooden keys. This being a joint
sleeper, three chairs were used, as in Fig. 307. Only two chairs
were used on the intermediate sleepers.

Figs. 309 and 310 are somewhat similar, but the circular one
is higher and more cup-shaped than the other of oval form.
The oval pattern has two small recesses for holding two small
hard-wood cushions. The circular holes shown in the sides of
the sleepers were intended to facilitate the packing, or tamping,
of the light sandy ballast.

Fig. 311 represents a rectangular cast-iron sleeper, as used
for the flange rail. The rail rests on cast-iron cross-ribs, bevelled
to give the proper cant, and is held in position by the tie-bar
bolt and clip-piece, as shown. The small projecting lug, formed
on the under side of sleeper, fits into a corresponding notch in
the tie-bar, and keeps the sleepers to gauge. The tie-bar passes
through the loop end of the same bolt which secures the rail,
and is held up tight against the under side of sleeper.

Figs. 312 and 313, both the same in principle, possessed
features which appeared to give great promise. They were
simple in construction; the rail was kept well down, and did
not come in contact with the cast-iron at any point. The long
wooden wedges, which fitted into the rough or serrated sides of
the casting, acted as a cushion to the rail, and were intended
to sink deeper into the recess as the super-imposed weight
increased, or the wood became thinner from shrinkage. In
practice, however, it was found that these sleepers were not the
success that was anticipated.

It was soon observed that sand and fine particles of gravel
from the ballast worked their way into the lower part of the
recess, and became so compact as to prevent the wooden wedges
working further down to increase their grip on the raiL Even
when the recess was kept free and clear of sand, the enormous
pressure exerted by the wooden wedges broke the iron at A,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 217

although an extra thickness was given to that part of the
section. The cast-iron was exposed to the greatest strain at
the point where it was the least capable of offering resistance.

Much ingenuity was displayed in many of the patterns
brought forward, but in dealing with a hard unyielding material
like cast-iron, it is difficult, if not impossible, to impart any soft,
elastic effect; and the different systems of cast-iron sleepers
failed to become popular on our home railways, on account of
the noise and vibration when trains passed over them. Another
objection was the great multiplicity of parts required in many
of the types, and the constant and severe strain produced on the
fastenings on the passing of every wheel. The bolts might be
made tight at first, but the incessant shaking would work them
loose, the threads became stripped, and the rails ceased to be
held in a proper and secure position.

The cast-iron sleeper road was considered unsuitable for the
heavy and fast traffic of our home lines, and was ultimately all
taken up and replaced with wooden transverse sleepers. At the
same time, there is no doubt that cast-iron sleepers have been of
great value in India and tropical climates, where timber sleepers
were not only scarce, but perish very rapidly. Very large
numbers of them have been laid down abroad of patterns very
similar to those shown in Figs. 309, 310, and 311, and have done
good service for many years. They are not affected by rain or
heat, but, unfortunately, being castings, are liable to considerable
annual loss from breakage.

Improvements in plate-rolling machinery, and in appliances
for bending and stamping wrought-iron, have materially assisted
in developing the introduction of wrought-iron and steel sleepers.
Cast-iron and wrought-iron are, in the abstract, hard and non-
elastic as compared with wood ; but whereas cast-iron can only
be made into fixed, unyielding shapes, wrought-iron and steel
can be worked into forms that possess a certain spring-like
effect, which not only enables them almost entirely to resist
fracture, but also imparts a measure of elasticity to the per-
manent way.

The simplest form of wrought-iron sleeper would be a plain,
flat plate, to which the chair, or rail-bracket, would be attached ;
but as this form would have bearing surface only, without any
lateral hold on the ballast to keep the rails to line, it could not
be adopted.

218 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

During the last few years very many types of wrought-iron
and steel sleepers have been introduced, and nearly all of them
of the transverse-sleeper pattern, formed out of rolled plates:
the sides, and in some cases the ends also, are bent, or turned
down to obtain a hold in the ballast Where bull-head or double-
head rails are used, cast-iron chairs, or wrought-iron bracket
chairs, are bolted, or otherwise secured to the upper surface of
the sleeper, a layer of felt, tarred paper, or other soft material
being placed between the two metal surfaces. Where flange
rails are used, they are fastened to the sleepers either by bolts,
clamps, or clips raised up out of the iron sleeper, and bent over
to hold tightening keys. Rolled transverse sleepers can readily
be bent, or set in the centre to give the proper cant at the rail-
seat ; and in some types the sleepers are pressed in the machines,
so as to be narrower towards the centre, and with a deeper turn-
over, to obtain increased stiffness.

In Figs. 314 to 319 are shown some of the patterns which
have been brought out, laid down in actual practice, and in use
at the present time.

From the fact that wrought-iron and steel sleepers have been
laid down in so many places where cast-iron sleepers were
discarded or refused a trial, it is evident that the former are
considered to have qualities which the latter did not possess.
Rolled iron or steel sleepers are coming more and- more into
use, especially on foreign or colonial railways. So long, how-
ever, as good, well-creosoted timber sleepers can be obtained for
our home railways at prices from 3& 8d. to 4$. 8<L each, and last
from fourteen to twenty years, there is little probability that
they will be supplanted by iron sleepers at double the cost
But abroad the circumstances of cost and durability are different,
and there the rolled iron or steel sleepers, which will outlive
two or three sets of wooden ones, must claim advantages which
cannot be overlooked. The difficulty will be in the fastenings,
the mode of attaching the rails to the sleepers. The constant
hammering of metal upon metal, resulting from the vibrations
of every passing load, will quickly wear or loosen bolts, rivets,
or wedges, and the fastenings which will prove the most efficient
will be those that are the simplest and most readily adjusted.

Fastenings. — Figs. 320 to 335 illustrate some types of the
principal fastenings used in connection with the chair road, and
with flat-bottomed or flange rails.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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220 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

The fish-bolts, Figs. 320 and 321, are of a form which is in
very general use both for steel bull-head rails and steel flange
rails. By making the neck square or pear-shaped, to fit into
corresponding hole in the fish-plate, the bolt is prevented from
turning round when the wrench or spanner is applied to tighten
the nut. A channel or groove is sometimes rolled on the outside
of fish-plate to grip bolts made with square heads. Some
engineers adopt two nuts, others prefer one nut of extra depth-
Washers are used in some cases, but are not universal. With a
deep rail it is preferable to place the nuts inside, so that the
platelayer inspecting his length can see both rows of nuts as he
walks along between the rails. With shallow rails the nuts
must be placed outside and the cup-heads inside, to give ample
clearance to the wheel-flanges.

Fish-bolts are subject to very severe work. Heavy rolling
loads passing over the rail-joints — frequently at very high
speeds — bring into play all the gripping power of the fish-bolts
to maintain a firm support of the fish-plates to ends of rails, and
the constant action of pressure and release produces a loosening
or unscrewing motion in the bolts which is very difficult to
counteract Loose fish-bolts cause clattering joints and uneven
road, and unless promptly remedied, the screw threads are soon
destroyed and bolts rendered useless. Many devices have been
invented to prevent or check this loosening of the bolts ; one of
the methods, and a very simple one, consists of a plain steel bolt
with a steel lock-nut, made as shown in Fig. 322. As will be
seen from the section, one-half of the nut is tapped of the same
size as the bolt, and the remainder with deep-locking threads.
The first half of the nut is readily screwed on to the bolt, but
considerable force must be exerted to screw on the portion
having the deep-locking threads ; practically the second half of
the nut has to cut a new or deeper thread for itself when screw-
ing round the bolt

The slits or grooves at the angles of the nuts form four
distinct cutting edges for shaping the deep threads. As the
upper part of the lock-nut is divided by the grooves into four
separate or detached segments, these segments will be forced
slightly open or outwards during the action of cutting the deep
thread on the bolt, and from their natural tendency to return to
their original position they must exercise a strong gripping
power on the bolt This combined operation of cutting the deep

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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222 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

threads and of forcing open the upper or detached segments, give
an enormous holding and retaining power to the lock-nut, and
enables it to withstand the train vibrations for a very long time
without any perceptible slackening. In case of line repairs the
nut can be readily unscrewed, and taken off the bolt.

Round iron spikes, as in Figs. 323 and 324, and round wooden
trenails, as in Fig. 325, are both used for fastening cast-iron
chairs to the sleepers. The spikes are made with a slightly
taper neck, of size rather less than the hole in the chair, to avoid
risk of breaking the casting when driving the spike down.
Trenails are made out of well-seasoned hard wood, and are
compressed by machinery. When driven into the sleeper, they
expand by exposure to the atmosphere, and hold the chair very
securely in position; but being only wood and of very small
scantling, they are subject to early decay. The head, which is
the only part in sight, may be perfectly sound, while the part
between the chair-seat and top of sleeper may be quite rotten
and useless. It would be very risky to depend upon trenails
alone ; one spike at least should be used to every chair. In some
cases an extra large trenail is used with an augur-hole down
the centre, through which either an iron spike is driven or a bolt
is passed and screwed into a crab-nut on the under side of the
sleeper. This arrangement will work well for a time, but there
will be a great deal of play in the spike or bolt when the trenail
becomes much decayed.

The spikes represented in Figs. 326, 327, and 328, are much
used with flange rails. They are square in section, and finished
with either blunt or sharp points, as shown. The top of spike is
made with a doghead and side-lugs to facilitate the easing or
withdrawal when necessary for renewals of sleepers, or altera-
tions in line. By inserting the curved double claw end of a
platelayers' crowbar, the spike can be raised without injuring
the sleeper; but if it is required to be driven into the same
sleeper again, a new hole must be bored, as the old hole will be
too slack to be of any service. Augur-holes must be bored in
the sleepers for the above spikes. For new roads, these holes
can be bored by machinery when cutting the grooves for itril-
seats; but when carrying out alterations or repairs, a large
number of spike-holes must be bored by hand-augurs, an opera-
tion both slow and laborious. With the hand-boring there is
the danger that the hole may not be made deep enough, owing to

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 223

the workman's endeavour to avoid damaging the point of his
augur by forcing it entirely through the sleeper, and bringing it
in contact with a stone. Augur-holes bored wide to gauge will
remain out of gauge, and although the spike may be driven down
firm in its position, a space will be left for play between the rail-
flange and spike.

Fig. 329 is a sketch of a dog-spike for flange rails which the
writer has used for many years both abroad and at home, and
which can be driven without any boring at all. The back of
this spike is made perfectly straight, half of the front side is
made parallel to the back, and the remainder is tapered down to
a chisel point not exceeding ^ of an inch thick, the entering
edge on the face being narrowed down to § of an inch in width.
Three jags or spurs are cut on each side of the tapered portion,
or twelve in all, and add greatly to the holding power. Not-
only can this spike be driven without any boring, but it possesses
the additional advantage that in driving it down its taper or
wedge-like shape causes it to drift hard up to the edge of the
flange of rail, an element of great value in securing the exact
gauge of line. With these spikes permanent-way laying can be
carried on very rapidly, and they are especially valuable when
making alterations, as augurs for spike-boring can be dispensed
with altogether.

Wood screws with square heads similar to Fig. 330 are some-
times used for fastening flange rails to wooden sleepers. They
are passed through holes punched or drilled in the flanges of the
rails, and are intended to preserve the gauge as well as secure
the rails to the sleepers. Experience has shown that these wood
screws possess very limited holding power. The screwed portion
of the bolt cuts but a very imperfect and weak holding thread
in the soft wood of an ordinary sleeper, moisture insinuates itself
into the bolt-hole, rusting the bolts and decaying the surround-
ing timber, and in a very short time the bolts become loose and
incapable of holding the rail down firmly. As permanent-way
fastenings wood screws are very inferior to crab bolts.

Crab bolts, as in Fig. 331, may be made either with square
or hexagonal heads, and with three spur-nuts or four spar-nuts,
as in A or B. The length of the bolts will depend upon the
thickness of the sleeper or timber-work through which they
have to be inserted. The bolt is pushed down through the hole
bored in the sleeper, and the crab-nut put on from underneath.

224 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

With a few turns of the bolt, the crab-nut is brought close up to
the underside of the sleeper, the spur-points become embedded in
the wood, and hold the nut firmly in position during subsequent
tightening of the bolt. Crab bolts are extensively used with
flange or flat-bottomed rails, and also in switch chairs and in
crossings. A large number of flange rails are used with one hole
through the flange at each end of rail, and a crab bolt passed
through the hole and through the sleeper next to the joint, as
shown in Fig. 332. This system checks the creeping of the rails
by effectually securing or anchoring each rail to two of the
sleepers. As there is always a tendency for these rails to crack
through to the outside at the flange-holes, it is very desirable to
have as few holes as possible. The two above described will he
found sufficient for all practical purposes. To avoid punching
or drilling more holes in the flanges of the rails, additional
or intermediate crab bolts can be used by means of the fang clips
shown on Fig. 333. The crab bolt is passed through the fang
clips and through the sleeper close up to the flange of rail, and
by screwing it round in the crab-nut under the sleeper the fang-
clip is pressed down until the two spurs are driven into the
timber, and the rail held securely in its place and to gauge.
Intermediate crab-nuts and fang-clips should always be used in
pairs, one on each side of the rail. Possessing more holding-
down power than ordinary spikes, they are particularly valuable
on sharp curves.

In some cases flange rails are laid in small cast-iron saddles,
or chairs, as shown in Fig. 334, one end of the rail-seat having
a recess to prevent the rail tilting upwards and outwards. An
ordinary spike may be used for the inside end of chair, and a
crab bolt with bent washer for the other. Unless the fastenings
can be kept always tight, the above arrangement makes a very
noisy, clattering road, as there are so many metal surfaces in
contact, and so little to deaden the vibration. For narrow flange
rails carrying heavy rolling load, chairs may be necessary to
increase the bearing surface on the sleeper, but with rails having
flanges five inches wide and upwards, it is better to let the
flange rest direct on the wood of a properly grooved sleeper, and
thus obtain a smoother and less noisy road.

On exceptionally sharp curves, wrought-iron or steel tie-bars,
as in Fig. 335, are sometimes used to maintain the line to gauge.
They may be made out of bars 3 inches wide by £ an inch thick,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION, 225

turned over at the ends to grip the outside flanges. Being made
to exact template, they have to be threaded on to the rails
before spiking down, and are placed between the sleepers at
distances from 7 to 10 feet apart.

Laying Permanent Way. — To preserve a good line and level
to the permanent way, it is absolutely necessary that the road-
bed should be kept thoroughly drained. If provision be not
made for quickly carrying away the rain-water, and if it be
allowed to collect under and around the sleepers, the action of
the passing trains will work the finer particles of the packing
into the consistency of soft mud, which will be gradually squeezed
away, leaving the sleepers imperfectly supported and insecure.
A loose sleeper involves a depression in the rails, and a corre-
sponding lurch in the vehicles of the train, and a series of these
depressions may produce such an oscillation in the train as to
cause it to leave the rails.

The height or space from formation-level to rail-level is
generally about 1 foot 9 inches for a flange railroad, and about
2 feet for a chair railroad.

Figs. 336 and 337 show cross-sections of both descriptions of
road as laid down for a double line in cutting. The same
arrangement applies to similar roads laid down in embankment,
merely omitting the side-drains or water-tables. The bottom
layer of ballast or road-bed should consist of good hard, quarried,
or broken stones, each 6 inches deep, set on edge, firmly and
closely hand-packed, forming a foundation through which the
rain-water can be quickly carried away. On the top of this
bottom pitching should be placed a 6-inch layer of broken stone
ballast or strong clean gravel, of which none of the stones should
be larger than will pass through a 2-inch ring. When the
sleepers and rails have been laid on this second layer, and
properly packed to line and level, the top ballasting, or boxing,
of either broken stones or strong clean gravel, should be filled
in to the form and extent specified. Where broken stones are
used for the top ballasting none of them should be larger than
will pass through a lj-inch ring.

Broken stone ballast should only be made from the hardest
and soundest description of rock or boulders, so that, however
small the particles, they will remain sharp and clean.

There are many kinds of rock which appear hard and
compact when first excavated, but upon exposure to the weather

Q

2i6 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 227

undergo a complete change, developing into soft masses contain-
ing too much clay to allow the water to pass through readily.
Where rock is scarce and gravel plentiful, the lower layer may
be made of the heavier or coarser gravel, leaving the finer gravel
for the upper layer, or boxing ; but there is no doubt that the
broken stone pitching makes the most efficient bottom layer.
No gravel ballast should be used which is not free from clay or
earthy sand.

Wherever there are particles of earthy matter, sufficient to
furnish nourishment for vegetable growth, weeds will quickly
spring up, and once established are most difficult, if not impos-
sible, to eradicate. The presence of weeds checks drainage, and
gives an untidy appearance to the line, besides constantly
occupying a large portion of the platelayers' time in their
removal.

Clean cinders, free from dust or earth, are much used for
upper ballast and boxing, and being lighter than gravel, are
specially applicable for soft boggy ground. Burnt clay, broken
into small pieces, has been largely adopted in districts where
both rock and gravel were difficult to obtain. Chalk, furnace-
slag broken small, crushed brick and sand, are frequently used
as ballast. Sand is objectionable where there is high-speed
traffic, as the finer particles rise in the form of dust and deposit
themselves on the vehicles and machinery of the train.

The water-tables, or side drains in the cuttings, should be
cut below the formation level, and to a depth or width sufficient
to take away all rain-water, or water arising from springs.
Where the material of the cutting is of a loose friable nature, it
may be necessary to protect the sides of the water-tables with
low dry stone walls, as in Fig. 338 ; or glazed earthenware pipes
may be laid, as in Fig. 339, with open joints, or with grate
openings at regular intervals. In some cases substantial side-
walls and invert are requisite to carry away the flow of water.

Timber sleepers intended for the flange railroad should have
the rail-seats grooved by machinery to ensure perfect accuracy
in the position of the grooves, and in the angle or inclination of
the rail-seats. Fig. 340 is a side view of part of a sleeper
grooved to receive a flange rail. The presence of the grooves
materially facilitate the laying of the rails to gauge, but must
not be allowed to interfere with the constant use of the plate-
layer's gauge. In a similar manner the timber sleepers for the

228 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

chair road frequently have the spike-holes bored to template by
machinery, as indicated on Fig. 341. Steel or iron sleepers are
delivered with the recesses for rails, and holes for bolts or
fastenings formed complete by machinery.

The distances apart of the sleepers will be regulated in &
great measure by the weight of the rails and the description of
the traffic. Where light rails are intended to carry heavy
engines the sleepers must be laid closer together than would be
necessary for heavy rails. The joint being the weakest part of
the rail, it is usual to put the sleepers closer together at that
place, with a view to gain additional support, to assist the fish-
plates in preserving as much as possible a firm unyielding surface
at the rail-joint.

Fig. 343 shows an arrangement of sleepering largely adopted
for steel flange rails 26 feet long, and weighing 79 lbs. per yard.
The length of a rail is more a question of convenience of hand-
ling, facility of transhipment, and general use, than of actual
manufacture. There is no difficulty in rolling rails up to 50
feet in length, or more ; but very long rails axe extremely un-
gainly things to move about, and are more exposed to receive
permanent bends or kinks in unloading, besides requiring greater
spaces at the joints to allow for contraction and expansion.

Fig. 344 is an example of sleepering for a chair railroad, for
steel bull-head rails 26 feet long, and weighing 85 pounds per yard.

Line stakes and level pegs must be put in at suitable
distances to guide the platelayers in laying the rails to the
correct line and level, and on the curves the proper amount
must be marked off for the super-elevation of the outer raiL

When the second layer of ballast has been spread for its full
width and depth the sleepers can be distributed, and the rails
or chairs spiked down to the correct gauge. Before putting on
the fish-plates spaces must be left at the ends of the rails to
allow for contraction and expansion, the amount depending upon
the temperature at the time of laying down the rails. As the
rails will expand, or increase in length, with the heat, it is
necessary to allow more space for expansion for rails laid down
in the cold, or winter months. On our home railways rails are
very rarely laid down when the temperature is lower than
25° F., or higher than 125° F., and this range of 100° may be
considered as covering all the variations likely to occur in
ordinary practice. The greater portion of the permanent-way

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 229

laying is carried on when the temperature is between 40° and
75°. The results of very carefully conducted experiments show
that an increase of temperature of 1° F. will cause an iron or
steel bar, or rail, to expand or lengthen to the extent of seven
one-millionths of its length. Working this out for a range of
100° F. would give an increase in length of seven hundred one-
millionths, which would be equal to an extension of 0*2184 of
an inch in a 26-foot rail. For our home railways, therefore, a
space of -f^ of an inch will be found amply sufficient to meet the
variations in length between the extremes of winter and summer,
for a rail from 26 feet to 30 feet in length. Too much allowance
for expansion is detrimental to the rails, because where the
spaces are excessively large the wheels drop into the hollow and
hammer or spread the ends of the rails.

The fish-bolts should not be completely tightened up until
the permanent way is thoroughly set, and packed to its finished
line and level.

On straight line the rail-joints should be laid square and
opposite to each other. Permanent-way laying with broken joints
is rarely adopted, except on curves or station-yards.

On curves the joints of the inner rails gain on the joints of
the outer rails to the extent of —

radius + gauge

radius ^

The amount of this gain, or lead, is adjusted by cutting off
a portion of the end of the inner rails at certain intervals.

Assuming the fish-bolt holes to be spaced as shown on Fig.
342, then, when the inner rail is leading to the extent of 2
inches, a piece 4 inches long is cut off, as shown by dotted lines,
leaving the original second fish-bolt hole to serve as first or end
fish-bolt hole, and a new or second bolt-hole is drilled by hand
at A. This method sets back the joint 2 inches from the
square, and the lead is allowed to go on again until it becomes
necessary to cut off another piece of 4 inches. Another mode is
to have a proportion of the rails rolled 2 or 3 inches shorter for
use on the curves.

On curves of a 1000 feet radius and upwards, the rails should
be laid to the normal gauge, but on curves of lesser radius the
gauge may be slightly increased, and as much as f of an inch
allowed on a curve of 500 feet radius.

230 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

The amount of cant, or super-elevation, to be given to the
outer rail on curves must be regulated by the speed of the train
and the gauge of the line. Many formulae have been compiled
to determine the necessary amount of super-elevation, but expe-
rience has shown that by some of them the calculated amounts
were excessive. Possibly during past years too much cant has
been given in many cases. The following simple formula
approaches very closely to practical experience —

,,...., , no • * x (the super-eleva-

( velocity m miles per hour) 51 x gauge in feet _ J . f * -i

radius in feet x 1*25 ~~ I . . ,

[ in inches.

For high-speed trains uniformity of cant is of the utmost
importance, more so even than the exact amount Any irregu-
larity in the super-elevation of the outer rail, sometimes high and
sometimes low, will produce a dangerous swaying movement in
the train, which, if not promptly checked, would lead to
derailment.

More injury is done to curves by spreading, arising from
rigid wheel-bases of engines and tenders, than from any want of
counteraction to centrifugal force.

When a long length of permanent way has been linked in,
rails spiked to gauge, and fish-plates bolted together, the plate-
layers can proceed to the final adjustment to line and level in
accordance with the stakes and pegs provided for their guidance.
The setting to exact line is effected by means of long pointed
round iron crowbars, which are struck forcibly into the ballast
alongside the rails, and serve as powerful hand-levers to pull or
push the rails to the right or left as directed by the foreman
standing some distance back at one of the line-stakes. The men
with the crowbars pass from rail-length to rail-length, until a
long stretch of road has been pulled into correct line.

The adjustment to rail-level is done by first packing up the
sleepers to the correct height at the various level-pegs, and then
packing up the intermediate sleepers so that the surface of the
top of the rails forms one uniform even line from level-peg to
level-peg. On new lines it is usual to pack a little high in the
first instance to allow for the subsidence or compression which
invariably takes place on the passage of heavy trains over fresh
ballast.

The form or contour line of the top ballast will vary

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 231

according to circumstances. In station-yards it is usual to fill in
the ballast almost up to the level of the top of the rails for the con-
venience and safety of the men who are constantly moving about
marshalling the carriages and waggons. Out on the open line
between stations, the ballast on some railways is filled in up to
rail-level, while on others it is only filled in up to the tops of the
sleepers, leaving the rails and chairs quite clear of the ballast.
On others, again, the ballast is filled well up to the rails and
channelled in the centre, as shown on the sketches Figs. 336 and
337. Channelling the centre of the road reduces the quantity of
ballast per mile, ensures good drainage, and also stability by not
permitting any central support to the sleepers. By covering up
the lower table and sides of rails the noise is reduced to a
minimum, vibration is absorbed, and a more silent road is the
result. The contact with the ballast also preserves the rail from
the extremes of temperature. Where the ballasting is not
channelled there is some risk of the sleepers breaking in the
middle. The constant packing of the sleepers just under the
rails has a tendency to drift some of the ballast inwards towards
the middle of the sleeper, forming a hard compact mass, and this
mass, acting as fulcrum, throws considerable strain on the middle
of the sleeper when the trains pass over and depress the ends.
Where the ballast is filled in level with the rails on top of sleepers
it should be loosened occasionally in the middle to prevent it
becoming too hard.

Connections with the rails of the main line will have to be
made in various forms to suit the circumstances of the joining
lines or sidings.

Fig. 345 shows a simple double-line junction.

Fig. 346 shows an example of what is termed a flying
junction, or a junction of two double lines arranged in such
a manner as to cause the least interruption to a constant train
traffic passing up and down over both lines. Upon referring to
Fig. 345 it will be seen that a train from F, turning off at the
points E and proceeding to G, must block, or close for traffic the
section ABC during its passage over that line towards G.
With a crowded train-service the blocking of both UP and down
main lines for the working of one train would cause much
interruption, and to obviate such delay the flying junction is
substituted. Fig. 346 shows how a train from. F is turned off at
the points J and proceeds on to K, where by means of a bridge

232

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

— 348

— 349 —

»- »»

I

-350

— 35/ —

aA'ffffl

-355 —

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 233

it passes either over or under both main lines, and continues on
to G without in any way interfering with the train service on

ABC*

Fig. 347 is an ordinary plain siding or turn-owb, including

the necessary throw-off or trap-points and short dead end.

Fig. 348 is an ordinary cross-over road from down main
line to UP main line, and vice versa.

Fig. 349 is a double cross-over road, generally termed a
scissors cross-over.

Fig. 350 is a simple through cross-over road from DOWN
main line to siding alongside up main line.

Fig. 351 is a similar arrangement of through cross-over road
with the addition of a pair of slip points at 8 to make a con-
nection with the up main line, thus combining the facilities of
the ordinary cross-over and through cross-over road.

Fig. 352 shows a set of three throw-switches with all the
sliding tongues placed side by side ; and Fig. 353 shows another
arrangement of three throws with the sliding-rails of the second
set of switches placed just behind the heel of the first set of
switches. The latter method works very well where there is
sufficient length for the purpose.

Fig. 354 shows a square crossing, where one line of railway
crosses another line of railway on the same leveL

Fig. 355 shows a connection with a siding by means of an
ordinary carriage or waggon turn-table.

Fig. 356 shows a set of " runaway " points which are some-
times placed in the main line at the top of an incline close to
a station, the object being to intercept or throw off any portion
of a train which may have become detached, and which would,
if unchecked, run away back down the incline. By means
of a weighted lever or spring the points are set to the normal
position of open to the siding, and as they are " trailing " points
for the running road they are readily closed by a passing train.
One or other of the above forms of connections, or a combination
of them, will meet all the requirements which usually occur in
railway work.

Fig. 357 is an enlarged sketch of an ordinary cross-over road,
and Fig. 358 of a double or scissors cross-over.

Fig. 359 shows a single-slip point connection, and Fig. 360
a double-slip point connection. In places where slip connections
can be introduced they add greatly to the facilities for train

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 23$

movements without curtailing the available standing-room for
vehicles on the lines and sidings. They are simple in con-
struction, do not require crossings, and in many cases save
a complete cross-over road. At the same time slip connections
can only be laid down where the angle of the intersecting lines
is sufficiently flat to admit of a connecting curve of workable
radius.

Fig. 361 is an enlarged sketch of a set of ordinary 15-foot
switches or points. By placing them about the middle of the
stock rails the joints of the latter are kept well beyond the
sliding rails, and the road is held firmly together. It is neces-
sary to place the sleepers closer together at the switches to allow
for the reduction in section of the sliding rails, which results
from planing them down to the requisite shape. By substituting
two long timbers for the ordinary sleepers at the points of the
switch rails, as shown on the sketch, a more efficient support is
obtained for the switch-box or crank in the case of rod- worked
switches, and the working distance from the rails is accurately
maintained, irrespective of any packing or pulling of the road.
In the sketch a steel bull-head rail is shown on one side, and a
steel flange rail on the other, each bolted to an ordinary cast-iron
switch chair. Switch chairs are sometimes made of plates of
wrought-iron or steel, forged to the correct shape, and riveted
together. . They are, however, much more costly than cast-iron
chairs, and deteriorate more quickly from corrosion.

Fig. 362 is an enlarged sketch of an ordinary crossing similar
to the one indicated at C (Fig. 359), and composed of a cast-
steel reversible block. The ends and lugs, L, L, are formed to
suit the connecting rails and fish-plates, as shown in the cross-
sections. The casting is secured to the crossing timbers by bolts
passing through the side lugs, S, a cast-iron packing- washer, W,
being placed between the lug and the timber to ensure a solid
seat and avoid rocking. A very important point in the construc-
tion of these block crossings is to have the groove or flange-path
sufficiently deep to prevent the striking or touching of the flange
of a much-worn tyre. A well-made, carefully annealed steel-
block reversible crossing is very smooth in the road, and has a
long Ufa It is all in one solid piece ; there are no parts to work
loose or spread ; the wear of the running surface is very uniform,
and when the one side is much worn down, there is the other
ready for service. The writer has had many of these steel-block

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 237

reversible crossings in use under heavy and fast traffic for six
and eight years without turning.

Fig. 363 shows an ordinary crossing made of steel bull-head
rails secured in strong cast-iron chairs ; and Fig. 364 is a similar
crossing made of steel flange rails. In some cases the two rails
forming the V are welded together at the point B, and in others
they are riveted or bolted together. Fig. 365 shows a diamond
or through crossing similar to the one indicated at D, Fig. 359,
made of steel bull-head rails and chairs.

Crossings are constructed in a variety of forms, whether on
the principle of the cast-steel block, or made out of ordinary
steel rails ; and the above sketches merely illustrate some well-
recognized types which experience has proved to be efficient and
durable in the road. The angles of the crossings will depend
upon the divergence of the intersecting lines to be connected ;
ordinary crossings, to the angle of 1 in 10, work in for very
general use in station-yards, but many are required of angles
varying from 1 in 6 to 1 in 14, and in some cases 1 in 16.

As a rule, engineers endeavour as far as possible to avoid
using ordinary crossings flatter than 1 in 12, or diamond cross-
ings flatter than 1 in 9, because the gap between the running
rails becomes very considerable beyond those angles. At the
same time, there are many cases of ordinary crossings of 1 in 16,
and diamond crossings of 1 in 12 and 1 in 13 laid down in
exceptional places, and which have carried heavy and fast traffic
for many years. All crossings should be well protected with
wing rails and guard rails, as shown on the sketches.

Fig. 366 illustrates a method of bringing the up and down
lines of a double line of railway close to each other, and passing
them over a single-line opening bridge, or a bridge where the
works for the second line have not been completed. This
arrangement avoids the necessity of any switches, and prevents
any accidents which would arise from a misplaced switch. Each
set of trains is effectually kept to its own line of rails. With
proper signalling or pilot working, the double-line traffic can
be worked over the single-line bridge without difficulty.
The writer has adopted the above arrangement in many
cases when renewing double-line bridges or viaducts where the
width for traffic working has been restricted to half of the
bridge.

In some instances the same system has been extended to the

238 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

■ mmm

-!«■

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 239

carrying of four lines of rails over a double-line bridge, as shown
on Fig. 367.

The principal tool used by platelayers for lifting the perma-
nent way is a long iron-shod wooden lever, as shown in Fig. 368.
The point of the lower end is pushed under the sleeper, and the
curved shoulder placed on a large stone or piece of wood as a
support, and then by pulling down the upper end of the lever
the road can be lifted to the height required. Screw lifting-jacks
of various kinds are also used for the same purpose, the foot or
base of the jack resting on the ballast, while the claws grasp the
under side of the rail, and raise it by means of the screw. With
appliances which lift by the rails, the sleepers have to be raised
by the holding power of the spikes or bolts, an operation which
is apt to throw undue strain on spikes. Where possible it is
preferable to lift from the under side of the sleepers.

Beaters similar to the one shown on Fig. 369 are used for
packing the ballast. One end of the beater is pointed like a
pick, and serves to loosen the ballast or broken stone, and the
other end is made somewhat in the hammer-head form to pack
or beat the ballast under the sleeper. With skilled men the
beater is a most useful tool, speedy and effective in its action.
Held in both hands, it is raised slightly, and then brought down
sharply, the hammer-head striking the gravel or broken stone
placed alongside for packing under the sleeper. A series of
smart blows can be given with rapidity and without requiring
any great muscular effort. In some foreign countries there is
difficulty in initiating the natives to work with the ordinary
beater, on account of the stooping position necessary for its use.
To meet this difficulty the writer has in many cases substituted
a packing or tamping-bar, as shown in Fig. 370. This bar,
about 5 feet long, is made of light round wrought-iron or steel,
with a ring-shaped handle at one end, and an ordinary beater
head at the other. The workman using this bar stands upright,
guides the bar, held loosely, with his left hand, and with his
right gives a continuance of smart blows. This tool works well
in the hands of light active natives, who can thus give a number
of rapid strokes without much exertion.

The simple rail-bender, or Jim, Crow, of the form shown in
Fig. 371, is much used by platelayers for giving a slight bend or
set to rails which have to be laid down on sharp curves on main
line or cross-over roads. The rail is laid across the two arms,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 241

and the screw turned round and downwards by means of an iron
bar lever used as a spanner or wrench to the nut shown on the
sketch. The same tool is also serviceable for straightening rails
which have become crooked or kinked. Large and more com-
prehensive machines are used for bending rails in large quantities
or setting them to exact curvature, but, being heavy and
cumbersome, they are rarely taken away from the store-yards.

Strong steel shovels of the form shown in Fig. 372 are the
most suitable for platelayers' general use when working with
gravel, sand, or broken stones.

For driving iron spikes and wooden keys in cast-iron chairs
a long-handled hammer is the most convenient for work, and its
long swinging action produces considerable force without much
actual labour.

Road-gauges, nut- wrenches, short straight-edges, spirit-levels,
ratchet-drills, augurs, and cold setts of well-tempered steel for
cutting rails, are all required by the men engaged in laying
permanent way.

The following summaries give the estimated cost of materials
alone for one mile of steel bull-head rail and steel flange rail
permanent way of different weights. The 90-lb. steel bull-
head rail is at present the heaviest of that section laid down to
any extent on our home railways, and the chairs and fastenings
are made heavy to correspond to the rail and the traffic for
which it is intended. As the rails in the summaries become
lighter, the weights of the chairs and fastenings are decreased.
As yet there are not many samples of the 100-lb. steel flange
rail; but in those places where it has been laid down it has
been supported with a liberal supply of sleepers, to obtain
increased bearing surface. With a 5£-inch flange, and a
rectangular sleeper 10 inches wide, the bearing surface on the
wood is only about 55 square inches, as compared with about
100 square inches, the bearing surface of a large cast-iron chair
for a heavy bull-head raiL As previously explained, a small
bearing surface on a sleeper tends to the cutting down into the
wood, and rendering the sleeper unsafe and useless even before
it has become unserviceable from decay : hence the reason for
ample bearing surface on the sleeper. The last two summaries
refer to 3-foot narrow-gauge lines. In more than one instance
the 45-lb. rails first laid down have been found much too
light for the engines required to work the traffic, and when

B

342

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

making extensions of the system 65-lb. rails have been adopted
Indeed, when taking into consideration the weight of most of
the narrow-gauge engines, generally from 24 to 28 tons in
working order, and their short wheel-base, it would appear that
a 65-lb. rail is the minimum which should be used both for
stability and economy in maintenance.

The summaries are prepared from examples in actual use,
and represent the number and weight of sleepers, chairs, and
fastenings in each instance. Even with the same weight of
rail, the practice differs on various lines as to the weights of the
chairs and fastenings ; and the selections have been made to show
a fair average. On some railways the chairs are secured partly
by tree-nails and partly by spikes, or crab bolts ; on others only
spikes are used. The prices put down are the estimated values
of the materials delivered into the Permanent Way Stores of
our own home railways, and are exclusive of all costs of freight,
carriage, or distribution to the site of laying down. The prices
are only comparative, and fluctuate up or down according to the
current value of the raw materials from which the various items
are manufactured. Lighter rails and smaller fastenings cost
more per ton than those of a heavier type, as they involve more
labour and workmanship.

Steel Bull-head Bails (90 lbs. peb Yabd).
Estimated Cott of MateridUfor One MOe of Single Line.

Steel bull-head rails, 90 lbs. per yard (30-fU

lengths) .../

Steel fish-plates (deep), 41 lbs. per pair ...

Fish-bolts and nuts

2112 ereosoted sleepers, 9 ft. x 10 in. x 5 in.
4224 oast-iron chairs, eaoh 50 lbs.
S448 iron cup-headed spikes
8448 tree-nails, at per 1000
4224 oak keys, at per 1000

Weight per mile
of single line.

Price.

tons. cwt. qre.

lbs.

£ «. d.

141 8 2

5

6 10

6 15

14

12 15

—

8 10

94 5 3

3 10

3 15 2

10

—

3 10

—

5

707 2 6

48 17 6

15 6

404 16 o

330 1

87 15

29 11 4

21 2 5

£1589 10 10

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

243

Steel Bull-head Rails (85 lbs. per Yard>
Estimated Cost of Material* for One Mile of Single Line.

Weight per mile
of single line.

Price.

Amount.

tons. owt. qrs. lbs.

£ *. d.

£ s. d.

Steel bull-head rails, 85 lbs. per yard (26-ft.j

IxSup^ulBj ... ... ••• ••• •••/

134

5

670

Steel fish-plates (deep), 88 lbs. per pair ...

6 17 3

6 15

46 9 10

Fish-bolts and nuts

14 3

12 15

15 15 7

2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. x 10 in. X 5 in.

3 10

389 1 8

4060 cast-iron chairs, each 45 lbs

81 11 1

3 10

285 9 5

8120 iron cup-headed spikes

3 12 2

10

36 5

4060 tree-nails, at per 1000

—

3 10

14 4 2

4060 oak keys, at per 1000

~

5

20 6

£

1477 11 8

1

Steel Bull-bead Bails (80 lbs. peb Yard).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One Mile of Single Line.

Weight per mile
of single line.

Price.

Amount.

1
tons. cwU qrs. lbs. £ «. d.

£ s. d.

Steel bull-head rails, 80 lbs. per yard (26-fU

XCuK i>UJv/ ... ••• ... ••» ***/

Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair ...

125 14

5

62a 10

6 14 1

6 15

45 6 2

Fish-bolts and nuts

14 3

12 15

15 15 7

2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft x 1 in. x 5 in.

—

8 10

889 1 8

4060 oast-iron chairs, each 40 lbs

72 10

3 10

253 15

8120 iron cup-headed spikes

3 12 2

10

36 5

4060 tree-nails, at per 1000

__

3 10

14 4 2

4060 oak keys, at per 1000

—

5

20 6

£1403 8 7

Steel Bull-head Bails (75 lbs. peb Yabd).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One MUe of Single Line.

Steel bull-head rails, 75 lbs. per yard (26-ft.j
lengths) ... ... ... ... ...J

Steel fish-plates (deep), 35 lbs. per pair ...

Fish* bolts and nuts

2080 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft X 10 in. x 5 in.
4060 oast-iron chairs, each 37 lbs.

12,1 80 iron oup-headed spikes

4060 oak keys, at per 1000

Weight per mile
of single line.

Price.

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.
117

6
1

67

7

4

1
8

3

1
3

9.

5

6 15
12 15

3

3 10
10

5

10

Amount.

£ s. d.

585

42 17
15 15
389 1
231 14
54 7
20 6

3

7
8
5
6

£1342 2 5

244

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Steel Bull-bead Bails (70 lbs. pkr Yard).
Estimated Cost of Material* for One Mile of 8ingle Line.

Steel bull-head rails, 70 lbs per yard (26-fU
lengths) ... ... ... .../

Steel fish-plates (deep), 82 lbs. per pair ...

Fish-bolts and nuts

2030 oreosoted sleepers, 9 ft x 10in.X 5 in.
4060 oast-iron chairs, eaoh 84 lbs.

8120 iron cap-headed spikes

4060 oak keys, at per 1000

Weight per mile
of single line.

tone. cwt. qrs. lbs.
110

5 16
1 2

61 12
8 3

2
2

Price.

£

5

6 15

12 15

3

3 10
10

4 10

d.

O

O
10

Aoki

£

550

t. i*.

o

39

14

3*9

215 13
31 15
18 5

£ 1257 19 4

Steel Bull-head Bails (65 lbs. pee Yard).
Estimated Co$t of Material* for One Mile of Single Line.

Weight per mile
of single line.

tons. cwt. qrs. lb*.

Steel bull-head rails, 65 lbs. per yard (26-ft.V 102 3

lvUKl UO J • • • • • • • • • • • • " • • /

Steel fish-plates (deep), 28 lbs. per pair ... 5 12

Fish-bolts and nuts 110

2030 oreosoted sleepers, 9 ft. x 9 in. x 4} in. —

4060 oast-iron chairs, eaoh 28 lbs 50 15

8120 iron cap-headed spikes 2 19

4060 oak keys, at per 1000 —

Price.

«. d.

7

13

4

3

10 10
4

C 4.

5 5 536 5 y

O

O
O
O

35 10
13 13
304 10
203
30 19
16 4

£ 1140 3

6
n

6

9

Steel Flange Bails (100 lbs. peb Yard).
Estimated Cod of Maleriah for One Mile of 8ingle Line.

Steel flange mils, 100 lbs. per yard (30-fU
lengths) ... ... ... ... .. /

Steel fish-plates (deep), 42 lbs. per pair ...

Fish-bolts and nuts

2464 oreosoted sleepers, 9 ft X 10 in. x 5 in.

8448 dog-head spikes

704 fang clips

1408 crab bolts

Weight per mil*
of single line.

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.
157 3

6 12
1 5

3

1

6
8 3
6 3

Price.

£
5

«. <f.

6 10

12 15

3 10

12 10

13 10
12 10

Amount.

783 15 «'

42 18 i>

15 IS »
472 5 4

41 5 o

5 18 J

16 14 3

£1380 14 b

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

*45

Steel Flange Rails (79 lbs. per Yabd).
Estimated Cost of Material* for One Mile of Single Line,

Weight per mile
of single line.

Steel flange rails, 79 lbs. per yard (26-ft\
lengths) ... ... ...

Steel flak-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair ..
Fish-bolts and nuts

2O30 ereosoted sleepers,
6496 dog-head spikes
812 fang clips
1624 crab bolts

, 9 ft. x 10 in

X5in

)

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.

125

6 14 1

14

2 10 3

10

1 10 8

6 10
12 15
3 10

12 10

13 10
12 10

Amount.

£ t. d.

625

43 12 8

15 6

389 1 8

31 14 5

6 15

19 4 5

1130 14 2

Stebl Flange Rails (74 lbs. peb Yabd).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One Mile of Single Line,

Steel flange rails, 74 lbs. per yard (80-fU
lengths) ... ... ... ... .../

Steel fish-plates (deep), 30} lbs. per pair .

Fish-bolts and nuts

1936 ereosoted sleepers, 9 ft x 10 in. x 5 in

6336 dog-head spikes

704 fang clips

1408 crab bolts

Weight per mile
of single line.

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.

116 5 3

4 15 3
110

2 9
8

2

3

16 3

£ 9. d.

5

6 10
12 15

3 10

12 10

13 10
12 10

Amount.

£ t. d.

581 8 9

31 2 5

13 7 9

371 1 4

SO 18 9

5 18 2

16 14 5

1050 11 7

Steel Flange Bails (65 lbs. peb Yabd).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One Mile of Single Line.

Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft.\

lengths) ...
Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair ..

Fish-bolts and nuts

1936 ereosoted sleepers, 9 ft. x 10 in. x 5 in

6336 dog-head spikes

704 fang clips

1408 crab bolts

Weight per mile
of single line.

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.

102 3

4 4 3

10

2 9 2

8

16 3

Price.

£ *. d.

5 10

7 5

13

3 10

12 10

13 10
12 10

Amount.

£ «. d.

561 16 6

80 14 5

13

371 1 4

30 18 9

5 8

16 14 5

1029 13 5

246

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Steel Flange Bails (60 lbs, per Yard).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One Mile of Single line.

Weight per mile
of single line.

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.

Price

Amount.

1

£ s.

d. £ u d

Steel flange rails, 60 lbs. per yard (30-ft \\
lengths) ... ... ... ... • ••/!

94 5 3

5 10

O . 518 11 7

Steel fish-plates (deep), 25 lbs. per pair ...

3 18 2

7 5

O 28 i» 2

Fish-bolts and nuts ... ... ... ... ,

10

13

O 13

2112 oreosoted sleepers, 9 ft. x 10 in. x 5 in. 1

t

3

IO 404 16

7040 dog-head spikes

2 15

12 10

O 34 7 6

704 fang clips ...

8

13 10

O 5 8

1408 crab bolts ...

16 3

12 10

O 16 14 5

£1021 6 3

Stebl Flange Bails (50 lbs. per Yard).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One Mile of Single Line.

Steel flange rails, 50 lbs. per yard (30-ft j
lengths) ... ... ... ... .../

Steel fish-plates (deep), 22 lbs. per pair ...
Fish-bolts and nuts ...

2112 oreosoted sleepers, 9 ft
7040 dog-head spikes
704 fang clips
1408 crab bolts

X9in

x4}in.

Weight per mile
of single line.

tons. cwt. qra. lbs.
78 11 2

3 9

18

2 7

6

1 2

1

1
1

Price.

£ *.
5 15

7 10

13 10
3

18

14
13

d.

O

Amonnt.

£ ». 4.

451 16 1

25 19
12 3
316 16
30 14
4 7
14 6

3
6

£| 856 2 3

Steel Flange Bails (65 lbs. per Yard).
Estimated Cost of Materials for One Mile of Single Line (S-fL gauge}.

Weight per mile
of single line.

Price.

Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. \

lengths) }\

Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair ...
Fish-bolts and nuts ...

tons. cwt. qrs. lbs.
102 3

2288 oreosoted sleepers, 6 ft
7744 dog-head spikes
704 fang clips
1408 crab bolts

x 9 in. x 4 f in.

X *. d. \ £ s.
5 10 I 561 16

4 4 3 7 5

10 13

— 10 2 3

2 17 12 10

7 2
2 2

SO 14
13 O

3 | 257 8
- 35 12
13 10 I 5 1
12 10 1 26 5

5

6
3
u

£ 929 17 8

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

247

Stekl Flahgb Rails (45 lbs. pkb Yard).
Estimated Cott of Material* for One Mile of Single Line (3-/*. gauge).

Weight per mile
of single line.

Price.

Amount.

1

Steel flange rails, 45 lbs. per yard (26-fU
lengths) ... ... ... ... ... I

Steel fish-plates (deep), 16 lbs. per pair ...

Fish-bolts and nuts

2233 oreosoted sleepers, 6 ft. x 8 in. x 4 in.

7308 dog-head spikes

812 fang clips

1624 crab bolts

tons. cwt. qra. lbs.

70 14 1

2 18
18

2 14
5
18

£ «. d.
5 15

7 10

13 10

1 10

13

14
13

£ 9. d,

406 12

21 15
12 3
204 13 10
35 2
3 10
11 14

£

695 9 10

CHAPTER IV.

Stations : Station Buildings, Roofs, Lines, and Sidings.

Stations. — When selecting a site for a station, not only should
due regard be paid to the proximity and convenience of access
to the town or place to be served, but attention should be gives
to the gradients of the line near the proposed station. If it can
possibly be avoided, a station should not be placed in a hollow at
the foot of two inclines, as such a position would always entail
heavy work starting trains on the ascending gradients, with the
risk of sliding back into the station again in unfavourable
weather; and for arriving trains there would be increased
difficulty in properly controlling the vehicles on the descending
gradients so as to bring them to a stand in the event of any
sudden stoppage being required. With stations on a summit,
having gradients falling in each direction, the starting train?
can get away more readily, and the arriving trains have the
benefit of the rising gradient to assist them in coming to a stand
Possibly the best selection would be a long length of level, both
in the station proper and for a considerable distance on each
side ; but it is not often that such a combination can be obtained
without incurring extra expenditure. The station-yard itself
should, however, be on the level, or as nearly so as possible, fortk
convenience and safety of marshalling or shunting carriages or
waggons. No siding should be laid on such a gradient as would
render it possible for vehicles to start into motion during high
winds. Carriages and waggons having good oil axle-boxes wtf
start themselves on a gradient of 1 in 300 under the influence
of a moderately strong breeze, and a slight push will start them
on a gradient of 1 in 400.

The number and arrangement of the lines, sidings, platforms,
loading banks, and other conveniences of a station, will depend
upon the description and amount of traffic to be accommodated

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. *49

There is a wide range from the simple village station, -with its
one short siding, to the great city terminus, with its labyrinth of
lines and sidings, and its groups of platforms, offices, warehouses,
and other accessories. Each station should be laid out with a
view to meet the special requirements of the principal traffic
likely to arise, whether passenger, timber, coal, stone, cattle, or
general merchandise, and ample space should be retained to
permit further enlargement and additional sidings at any future
time. If provision is not made for the latter in the outset it
will certainly lead to large expenditure at some later date.
Land adjoining a railway station is quickly appropriated by the
public on account of its proximity and convenience for con-
veyance, and soon covered with store-yards, warehouses, and
other buildings, and when any portion of these have to be
acquired for station enlargements, they can only be obtained at
a large cost, very often ten times as much as the value of the
original ground.

When laying out approach roads to goods or passenger
stations, whether intermediate or terminal, due importance
should be given to the advantage of making them wide, easy in
gradient, and fairly straight. A narrow, crooked access to a
busy goods yard is a great impediment to the expeditious
working of a heavy traffic ; and road waggons conveying long
pieces of timber or ironwork along such a route, would be very
apt to block the roadway and delay the passage of other vehicles.
A steep gradient will prevent the carriers taking full loads, and
will add to the cost and time of delivery.

An approach road to a large passenger station should be laid
out with a long frontage to a wide footpath to enable the
numerous intending passengers to alight conveniently from the
conveyances which bring them to the station. A portion of the
footpath and carriage-way in front of the entrance to the booking-
hall should be covered over with a light roof to provide shelter
during inclement weather. The footpath should be on the same
level as the vestibule or booking-hall, so that the public may pass
at once to the ticket-office and their luggage be wheeled on hand-
barrows direct to the platform or luggage-room. Every effort
should be made to avoid introducing steps from the footpath to the
booking-hall, as they check the proper ingress of the passengers,
and are very severe on elderly persons and invalids, besides
necessitating the dilatory method of carrying each piece of the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 251

passengers' luggage by hand. Experience has shown the incon-
venience of steps to be so great that in many cases a large
expenditure has afterwards been incurred to do away with them,
and bring the setting-down footpath to the same level as the
booking-hall. For a large station the booking-hall should be
spacious and well provided with separate ticket windows for the
different classes of passengers and districts of the line; and the
access or communication with the platform should be ample and
free from obstruction. Small doors and narrow passage-ways
check the movements of the passengers and create confusion and
delay.

Waiting-rooms for the different classes of passengers, inquiry-
offices, luggage-rooms, lavatories, etc., will have to be provided
according to the amount of traffic to be accommodated. In
large stations it may be necessary to have two or more groups
of such rooms to suit the different sets of platforms.

At the most important terminal stations of our home rail-
ways it is usual to lay down the main-line arrival platforms
with a cab or carriage rank alongside, so that the passengers
alighting from the railway carriages have merely to walk across
the platforms, and step into the cabs or vehicles waiting to take
them and their luggage away from the station. This arrange-
ment is not only a great convenience to the passengers, but
expedites the clearing of the platform and the making way for
another incoming train. It would not, however, be of any
service on continental lines, or other foreign railways, where all
arriving luggage must first be taken to the general luggage
room, to be examined by the local customs, or octroi officers,
before being allowed to pass out of the station.

Main-line departure platforms should be of ample width to
allow of the free movement of the passengers, ticket examiners,
officials, and men wheeling passengers' luggage. The accom-
modation should not only be sufficient for the normal traffic, but
allowance should be made for the large crowds which may
assemble for excursion trains during the holiday season or other
occasions of national gathering. Additional or local platforms,
frequently termed dock platforms, may be required for sub-
urban trains, and may be made narrower in width, and without
cab ranks, as the passengers using them only travel short
distances and rarely have more luggage than they carry in their
hands. These dock platforms are generally made available for

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

: \\

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 253

outgoing as well as incoming trains. The lengths of the main-
line or local platforms will be regulated by the number of
carriages forming a train.

Fig. 373 is a diagram sketch of a large terminal passenger

station, with main and local platforms as above described. It is

merely typical to illustrate the principle, and may be multiplied

and varied to any extent in the way of lines and platforms. In

the sketch the main groups of offices, waiting-rooms, etc., are

shown at the end of the station ; but they may be equally well

placed at the side, as their actual location is principally a question

of proximity or convenience of access to some main street or

thoroughfare. The lower or platform-level rooms of such a

building are mainly devoted to the public for booking-offices,

waiting-rooms, refreshment-rooms, lavatories, offices for parcels,

telegraph and inquiry, suitable rooms being set apart for lamps,

foot-warmers, guards, and porters. Above this lower story a

range of offices can be built for the use of the principal officers

and staff of the different departments of the company.

Fig. 374 is a plan of a small terminal station on a single line
of railway, where the passenger traffic is small, and one platform
is made to serve alternately both for arrival and departure
trains. The booking-hall, waiting-rooms, offices, etc., are laid
down parallel to the line of rails, and the approach road and
footpath are parallel to the building. The platform roof extends
to the outer wall, and provides shelter for the passengers on the
platform, and forms a shed for the carriages at night.

Fig. 375 is a sketch of an intermediate or roadside station
on a single line of railway. All the offices, waiting-rooms, etc.,
are on one platform, which serves for trains travelling in either
direction. The dotted lines show the additions which would be
necessary to make the station a stopping-place for trains working
in opposite directions.

Fig. 376 shows an ordinary intermediate or roadside station
on a double line of railway, with two passenger platforms, and a
connection between them either by subway or over-line foot-
bridge. The principal offices and waiting-rooms are shown on
the one side, and only small waiting-rooms, eta, on the other.

Fig. 377 is a sketch of a double-line intermediate or roadside
station at the junction of a small single-line branch railway.
Branch-line passengers to and from the main BOWN-line trains,
merely walk across the platform to get into their respective

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

i

5

258 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

trains, and those to or from the main up trains walk across the
footbridge or subway to get to the opposite platform.

Fig. 378 is a plan of a double-line roadside station, with two
main-line passenger platforms and a dock line and platform for
the use of local or branch-line trains. This arrangement is
applicable where the actual junction with the main line is at a
little distance from the station, but not sufficiently far away to
warrant an additional junction station as shown in Fig. 377.

Fig. 379 shows a similar roadside station laid out with a
tuore comprehensive arrangement of dock-lines and platforms.
The lines alongside the main passenger platforms are turn-outs
from the main-line proper, and leave the latter free for the
passage of fast through trains or goods trains when an ordinary
passenger train is standing alongside the platform. In this way
a fast non-stopping train can overtake and be sent forward in
advance of a slow passenger train.

Fig. 380 shows a roadside station with two double platforms,
the inner lines and platforms being reserved for main-line
passenger trains, and the outer lines for branch-line trains. By
this arrangement carriages can be quickly transferred from a
branch-line train to a main-line train, and vice versd; access
from the public road, or from one platform to the other, can be
obtained either by subway or over-line footbridge.

Fig. 381 is a sketch plan of an island platform for a double-
line roadside station, near which there are junctions with two
branch lines. The UP and down main lines run alongside
the wide portion of the platform, and the branch lines run into
the two dock platforms. The waiting-rooms, refreshment-
rooms, etc., are placed in groups on the wide platform, spaces
being left between the blocks for the convenience of access from
side to side. The booking-office and parcels-office are placed
alongside the approach road on the higher level. An over-line
footbridge extends from the booking-hall to the dock platforms,
terminating with steps on one side and an inclined ramp of 1 in
8 on the other. In carrying out the above plan for a railway
on an embankment, the access from the booking-hall to the
platform would be provided by a subway instead of an over-line
footbridge.

Fig. 382 shows another form of island platform, also arranged
for up and down main-line trains, and two branch-line
trains. The access is obtained from a public-road over-line

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 259

bridge crossing the railway, and the booking-office is placed at
the top of an incline, or ramp, leading down to the platform.
The dock-line platforms are arranged different to those in the
preceding example, with the object of providing longer platforms
for the main-line trains. This result, however, is obtained at
some little inconvenience to the dock-line trains, as the passengers
from one of these must walk round a portion of two platforms
to get into the other dock-line train, instead of merely walking
across the platform as in Fig. 381.

In some cases of island platforms the total width of the
station buildings and platforms is made much greater than
indicated in the above sketches, and a wide, easy incline con-
structed from an over-line public-road bridge, to allow cabs and
carriages to come down to a large paved area between the plat-
forms, for the convenience of setting down and taking up the
train passengers and their luggage.

The island-platform arrangement possesses many advantages
for the exchange of passenger traffic All the platforms are
connected and on one level, and passengers, together with their
luggage, can be quickly transferred from one train to another.
One set of waiting-rooms, refreshment-rooms, etc., are sufficient,
and are available for the passengers of all the four trains. A
smaller number of station men are required for the work, as the
staff can be more concentrated and better utilized than when
there are separate platforms on opposite sides of the line.

The number, size, and arrangement of waiting-rooms and
other offices for the public at a large station will depend upon
the amount and description of traffic to be dealt with at the
particular station under consideration. Where the passenger
traffic is to a large extent of a local or short distance character,
a moderate amount of waiting-room space may be sufficient, as
these local passengers regulate their arrival so as to avoid
waiting any great length of time for the traina An enormous
suburban passenger traffic is carried on in many places with a
very limited waiting-room accommodation, the frequency of the
trains and the routine of the travellers reducing the necessity
of such rooms to a minimum. A more ample waiting-room
space will be necessary when providing for a large, long journey,
or through traffic, and for stations at seaports, as the intending
passengers, particularly those landing from steamers, generally
reach the station a considerable time before the departure of the

260 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

trains to take them forward. For this class of traffic it will also
be necessary to provide suitable refreshment-rooms. At large
terminal stations it is frequently found more convenient for the
working of the traffic to have two or more sets of waiting-rooms,
etc., separating the local and long-journey passengers, and
placing the rooms alongside the corresponding platforms.

Lavatories and conveniences at large stations should be
provided on a liberal scale, and fitted up in the most substantial
and efficient manner. Not only should they be thoroughly well
ventilated, but they should have abundance of light. Nothing
tends so much to ensure order and cleanliness in these places as
plenty of light.

It will frequently be found that at many of the large
important stations there are local surroundings and circum-
stances of level and foundations, which will to a great extent
influence the arrangement of the rooms and offices to be devoted
to the public service. No fixed or standard type could be
adopted for all cases. Each one will have to be studied out to
suit the locality, and the grouping must be made to work in with
the best facilities obtainable. In all such cases one of the
principal points is to select a convenient position for the booking-
hall, easy of access to all persons entering the station premises.
On no account should the ticket-office be placed in a position
tending to block the thoroughfare on to the platforms. A large
number of intending passengers may already be in possession of
tickets, and the station arrangements should enable these pas-
sengers to proceed at once to the platforms without having to
struggle or force their way through crowds of other passengers
gathered round the ticket windows. In some instances it is
found expedient to provide auxiliary booking-offices for excursion
traffic, to be used only on special occasions, thus restricting the
principal booking-offices to the ordinary main-line booking:

When laying out small intermediate or roadside stations for
either double or single line, or small terminal stations on short
branch lines in thinly populated districts, it becomes a question
how to provide the requisite statutory accommodation with a
minimum amount of building. The following sketches taken
from actual examples may be of use for reference.

Fig. 383 shows the smallest size of station building that can
very well be constructed to be of any practical service. It
comprises an office for the station-master, who has to attend to

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 261

the tickets, parcels, and telegraph ; a waiting-hall with glazed
front; a small waiting-room and w.c. for ladies; and a yard
with conveniences for gentlemen, coal store, etc. Access to the
station is obtained through a gateway in the platform fencing.

Fig. 384 shows a somewhat similar arrangement, but with
two additional rooms. The road approach to the station is
brought alongside and parallel to the building, and access to the
platform is obtained by passing through the booking-hall, which
has a glazed front to the line.

Fig. 385 gives the particulars of a building containing rather
more accommodation than the two preceding examples.

Fig. 386 shows a small terminal station for a short branch
line where there is a moderate tourist traffic during the season.
In addition to the regular station accommodation, a refreshment-
room is added for the convenience of those passengers who have
to drive into the country, or have arrived at the station by road
conveyance. The platform roof, which is extended out over the
line of rails, as shown on the transverse section, forms a complete
covering for the platform, and serves for a carriage-shed at
night.

The above sketches merely illustrate types of some small
stations suitable for home or colonial lines, and may be built of
stone, brick, concrete, iron, or timber. For towns of more import-
ance, the offices and rooms would have to be increased both in
number and size. On foreign lines it is customary to provide an
office and large hall fitted up with counters for the use of the
Local Excise Authorities in the examination of passengers'
luggage ; and at some stations one or more rooms have to be set
apart for the use of the military authoritiea

Narrow platforms should always be avoided, especially in
front of the offices and waiting-rooms. Nothing tends more to
check the proper expeditious working of the traffic than a con-
fined space for the movement of the passengers and of the station
staff carrying luggage.

In cases where the traffic will warrant the expenditure, it
will be found an advantage to construct a light roof or verandah
over a portion of the platforms of roadside stations. This cover-
ing will provide a convenient shelter for the passengers and their
luggage, and prevent the crowding of booking-halls and door-
ways during inclement weather. In hot countries a verandah
or awning of some description on the platforms is an absolute

262

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

I

I

*

x
^

*

I

tot

4
T

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

n

264 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

necessity, and those travellers who have had any experience of
railways under a tropical sun, will call to mind the celerity with
which the passengers seek such welcome shade.

A very important item in the construction of a large termiml
station is the roof over the lines and platforms. Wrought-iron
and steel can now be obtained in so many convenient sections,
and at such moderate prices, that timber-framed roofs, except
for very small spans, are now rarely used for railway work.
The metallic structure is much lighter in appearance and more
durable, besides being less exposed to destruction by fire, Tie
introduction of iron and steel has enabled roofs to be constructed
of very much larger spans than would have been prudent to
have attempted in timber ; at the same time it must be kept in
mind that, notwithstanding this increased facility of construc-
tion, the cost of a roof per relative area covered increases very
rapidly as the span increases. The extent of space to be roofed
over in some of our modern terminal stations is so large that the
question of roof-spans to be adopted has to be considered very
carefully. It has been argued by some that if the area be
divided out into small or moderate spans, the presence of the
rows of columns for supporting the roof might preclude the
possibility of any future re-location of the lines and platforms
except by an entire rearrangement of the roof-work. On the
other hand, it may also be stated that railway engineers have
now obtained such a thorough experience of the necessary relative
proportions of platforms and carriage-lines for large stations, as
to enable them to lay out these works without any risk of
requiring alterations for many years.

There are so many descriptions of roof -principals used in
railway stations that it would be impossible here to introduce
more than a few examples. Figs. 387 to 405 illustrate by
diagram sketches a series of types taken from actual practice.
Fig. 406 gives more in detail the particulars of the roof-principal
of 60 feet span, Fig. 392. As will be noted from Fig. 406, the
width of 120 feet between the walls is divided into two spans
of 60 feet each, the ends of the principals in the centre of the
120 feet being carried on arched wrought-iron girders of 48 feet
span, supported on strong ornamental cast-iron columns placed
at 48-foot centres. The rain-water from the large centre gutter
is taken down inside the columns and conveyed away to drainage
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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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described forms a very strong roof, and is light in cost and
maintenance. The weight of ironwork, both wrought and cast,
in the principals, arched wrought-iron girders, cast-iron columns,
centre gutters, etc., is only 0*51 of a ton per square (of 100
square feet) of area covered. For comparison, the weight of
ironwork in the roof, Fig. 402, of 198 feet span is 1*42 ton per
square of area covered ; and of the roof, Fig. 404, of 210 feet span,
is 2*07 tons per square.

This increase in weight per square as the spans go on
increasing results, not only in a much larger outlay for original
construction, but entails also a proportionally heavier expendi-
ture for maintenance and painting. The item of painting alone
is an expensive one in all iron-roof work, and must be attended
to regularly for the proper protection and appearance of the
ironwork. With the smaller spans, the roof-trusses form very
convenient supports for painters' scaffolding or planking, but
with the very large spans the greater height and the form
of the roof-principals render specially designed scaffolding and
appliances necessary for the painting and repairs.

Doubtless there is something very attractive about a large
span roof, its bold outline stretching from side to side of a wide
covered area imparts an imposing effect which cannot be claimed
for smaller or more moderate spans ; but where roofs are con-
structed for purely utilitarian purposes it becomes a question
worthy of grave consideration whether a series of smaller spans
would not provide the same practical benefits as would be
obtained from one very large span. Upon referring to the
typical sketch of a terminal station, Fig. 873, it will be seen
that the total width from inside to inside of main walls is
240 feet. The lines and platforms are so arranged that by
placing rows of columns at A, A, B, B, and C» C, the entire width
may be divided out into four spans of 60 feet ; or, if preferred, a
row of columns at B, B may be adopted, resulting in two spans
of 120 feet, or the entire width maybe included in one large span
of 240 feet. Any one of the three arrangements will provide an
effectual roof-covering, and the selection must be decided by the
cost or expediency.

Another way to avoid the introduction of large span-roof
principals, and to preserve the covered area free from intervening
columns, is to erect strong truss-girders extending across at right
angles from the main walls. These truss-girders are placed at

272 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

suitable distances, and carry simple roof-principals of convenient
spans. In some cases the roof-principals are placed as shown in
Figs. 407 and 408, and in others as in Fig. 409.

In another system the roof-principals are incorporated with
the main truss-girders, as in Fig. 410.

With the above type of covering the truss-girders take the
place of the arched wrought-iron girders and cast-iron columns,
as illustrated in Fig. 406, but will be more costly, as may be
gathered from the following brief comparison : Assuming the
area to be covered as 480 feet long and 180 feet wide, then the
width of 180 feet could be divided into three spans of 60 feet
each, or one centre span of 65 feet, and two of 57 feet 6 inches
if they would work in more conveniently. With columns at 48-
foot centres longitudinally, the three-span arrangement would
contain the following: — Twenty cast-iron columns in the two
rows, or twenty-two columns if two columns are placed side by
side at the extreme end ; 960 lineal feet of light arched wrought-
iron girders in twenty girders of 48 feet span.

On the other hand, with the truss-girders placed at 40-foot
centres to suit roof-principals resting on the tops of girders, as
shown in Fig. 409, or to suit the arrangement shown in Fig. 407,
there would be twelve heavy truss-girders, each of 180 feet span,
making a total length of 2160 lineal feet of deep truss-girder
work, exclusive of about another 60 lineal feet, which would be
required for the bearings on the side walls.

The successful lighting by day of a large roofed-in station
will depend principally upon an appropriate distribution of the
glazed portions. With a large span, and the glass skylights
placed near the apex, the side lines and platforms will be much
less efficiently lighted than those near the centre ; and again, if
the glazed parts are only at the sides, then the centre portion
will be rather in the shade. Where possible it is better to place
the glazed portions and slated portions alternately, so as to
obtain a more uniform light all over the centre area, somewhat
similar to the arrangement shown in Fig. 406.

Boofs over passenger platforms at roadside stations are made
in many types, the arrangement depending in a great measure
upon the width of platform to be covered. In many of the
earlier stations the roof was extended across from side to side,
and included the lines of rails as well as the up and bowk
platforms, a system which was not only costly, but had the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 273

disadvantage that the steam and smoke from passing trains
remained for some time under the roof before it was thoroughly
dispersed. The more modern and more economical plan is to
put the roof or shelter over the platforms only, and allow the
steam and smoke to pass away into the air. In designing the
latter class of roof, the fewer supporting columns the better, so as
to diminish as far as possible the obstructions on the platforms.
Where the platform is unavoidably narrow, the roof may be
carried on curved brackets projecting out from the walls.

Except in tropical countries, where shade is more acceptable
than strong light, a liberal amount of glass should be provided in
these platform roofs. On many of our home railways they are
entirely covered with glass, and the abundance of light is found
to be of great assistance in the working of the traffic. Figs. 411
to 420 are sketches of a few out of the many types of small roofs
-which have been erected over single and island platforms.

Goods-sheds. — The form and dimensions of a goods-shed for
any station must be determined by the description and amount
of traffic to be transacted at the particular place* With an
estimate of the traffic before him, the engineer must consider the
internal arrangement of building most suitable for the bulk of the
merchandise to be accommodated. The principal object of the shed
is to permit of goods being transferred under cover from or to
railway trucks or carts without being exposed to the weather, and
the transfer will be expedited if the arrangements are made the
most convenient for the particular class of merchandise presented.
For some commodities it is considered preferable to unload
direct from the railway trucks into carts, or vice versd, and thus
have only one handling of the goods. To comply with this
method, the cartway must be made almost down to the same
level as the rails, to allow the carts or drays to be drawn close
up alongside the railway trucks, as shown in Figs. 427 and 428.
This type of shed implies a constant supply of carts, so as not to
detain the railway trucks, or necessitate the stacking or storing
of goods on the low level floor in the way of carting movements.
For general merchandise in boxes or bales, a raised loading-
bank inside the shed is usually found to be the most convenient
arrangement both for loading and unloading. The top of the
loading-bank should be a little below the level of the railway-
truck floor to give clearance to all truck-doors opening outwards.
By means of short portable gangways or landings, the moderate-

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278 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

sized packages are readily transferred to or from the tracks, either
by hand or by small two-wheeled trolleys, the heavier pieces
being lifted by cranes. The cartway should run parallel to the
rails on the opposite side of the loading-bank, and may be either
inside or outside the building, according to the importance of the
place. When the cartway is inside, the entire front of the load-
ing-bank is available for cart traffic, but this advantage entails a
considerable increase in the size and cost of the building. When
the cartway is outside, the cart traffic is worked through large
doorways placed at suitable distances, and fitted with projecting
roofs or awnings to protect the goods during the loading or
unloading. At some of these doorways, short docks about 10
feet square, or more, are formed in the loading-bank, into which
the carts may be set back fairly into the shed for the greater
convenience of the transhipment of the goods by hand or crane
power. Where the stacking space is ample, the contents of
several railway trucks may be discharged on to the loading-bank
without any delay in waiting for carts, and the same railway
trucks may be loaded with other goods and dispatched outwards,
or may be taken away empty if the loading-bank is reserved for
arriving goods only. Where the traffic is large and constant
there is an advantage in having separate goods-sheds for the
inwards and outwards work.

The following diagram sketches will illustrate some of the
many types of goods-sheds in use on railways : —

Fig. 421 shows a shed suitable for general merchandise at a
small roadside station. For economy of construction, the line of
rails and cartway are both placed outside the building. A small
goods-office is built at one end, in which is fixed the pedestal
and lever indicator of the cart- weighing machine. The roof is
projected outwards over the doorways for the railway trucks and
for carts. The railway truck doorways are spaced to correspond
to the length of the trucks. A narrow platform, about 3 feet
wide, is formed outside the shed alongside the trucks for the
convenience of the men when loading or unloading.

Fig. 422 represents a rather larger shed, with the line of rails
inside the building and cartway outside. With this type the
railway trucks are entirely under cover, and can be unloaded or
loaded more conveniently. It has also the additional advantage
that the trucks and their contents can be left secure when the
shed is locked up at closing time.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 279

Fig. 423 shows a shed with a line of rails down the centre,
&nd a loading-bank on each side, the cartways being outside the
building ; one loading-bank is for inwards goods, and the other
for outwards goods. On the arrival of a loaded railway truck,
the door on one side is opened, and the contents unloaded on to
one of the loading-banks. The door is then closed, and the
opposite door opened for loading from the other loading-bank.
By this method a railway truck can be unloaded and loaded
again without changing its position.

Fig. 424 represents a shed with two lines of rails down the
centre and loading-banks on each side, the cartways being
outside the building. One line of rails and corresponding loading-
bank is for inwards goods, and the other line of rails and loading-
bank for outwards goods. When the railway trucks on the
arriving line are unloaded, they are either drawn out of the shed
and shunted on to the opposite line to be loaded again, or trans-
ferred direct on to the opposite line by turn-tables, or traversers,
placed at convenient distances between the columns supporting
the roof.

Fig. 425 illustrates a shed in which both the line of rails
and cartway are placed inside the building. This is no doubt
the most convenient type for transfer of general goods, as all the
operations of transhipment are carried on entirely under cover ;
but it is the most costly, on account of the large building and
roof area required.

Fig. 426 shows a large double shed similar in general
arrangement to the type represented in Fig. 425, but with three
lines of rails down the centre. The line A may be used for
inwards goods, and C for outwards. By means of turn-tables, or
traversers, connecting the three lines at convenient distances in
the length of the building, the unloaded trucks can be transferred
on to the far line, C, for loading again, or on to the line B, to be
drawn away out of the building. The lines A and C may both
be used for inwards traffic, or both for outwards, and the line B
used for taking away or bringing in empty trucks.

Fig. 427 represents a shed with the line of rails and cartway
inside the building, and both very nearly on the same level.
This class of shed is often considered the most suitable for fruit,
vegetables, and certain light goods which require prompt
delivery and careful handling.

Fig. 428 shows a form of shed with a raised loading-bank on

a8o RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

one side of a line of rails, and a cartway on the other. With
this arrangement the railway trucks may be loaded or unloaded,
either from the raised loading-bank or direct from, carts and
drays drawn up alongside the trucks! according to the description
of merchandise presented.

Fig. 429 shows a type of umbrella roof sometimes erected
over a narrow loading-bank outside of a goods-shed. It is
simple and economical in construction, and provides good accom-
modation for loading and unloading under cover packages and
goods of secondary importance.

The above sketches illustrate some of the many arrangements
for goods-sheds, and can be modified and extended in several
ways. The leading dimensions, widths of loading-banks, cart-
ways, and gauge of lines, will have to be adjusted to suit cir-
cumstances.

Looking at a goods-shed merely as a medium for the con-
venient transfer of merchandise between the railway and the
roadway, the inference is soon drawn that the removal of the
goods into trucks or carts should be effected as speedily as
possible, otherwise a large extent of shed-room will be required
for carrying on a moderate amount of work. Every effort should
be made to clear the goods from the loading-bank as soon as
they have been properly unloaded and checked. Any laxity in
this respect will cause an outcry for increased accommodation,
which a little more energy and careful organization would have
prevented

Timber plank floors are generally preferred for inside loading-
banks. Inside cartways should be formed either of granite setts
or wooden-block paving ; the latter is better, being less noisy,
and, if occasionally sprinkled with sand, will afford a good foot-
hold for the horses. A macadamized roadway under cover is
never satisfactory, as it is always dry, and never binds together
into a compact even surface. Sliding or rolling doors are the
best for goods-sheds, as they are more out of the way, and under
better control during high winds.

Cranes of appropriate strengths, and worked by hand or
other motive-power, should be distributed in suitable positions
throughout the shed. They should- be placed so that they can,
when required, lift direct out of a railway truck on the one side,
and deposit into a cart or dray on the opposite side of the loading-
bank.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 281

Goods-sheds may be built of stone, brick, iron, or timber, or
a combination of all of them. Where the requirements are well
proved, and the traffic certain, it is better to build a substantial
permanent structure. Iron sheds, with sides and roofs of galvan-
ized corrugated iron sheets, will last for many years if not made
of too light materials. There are many cases where it is more
prudent to put up a goods-shed in timber than to incur the
cost of one of more permanent character. Where the traffic
is uncertain, or the foundations bad, or out in undeveloped
districts abroad, a building of timber will serve the purpose for
a number of years, or until the period of probation has passed,
and the actual requirements are accurately ascertained. In a
timber-built shed, the decay usually commences about the ground
line, but if the nature of the soil will permit of the construction
of a small dwarf foundation wall of masonry or concrete up to
about nine inches above the ground line, the life of the building
will be prolonged for several years.

The best method of admitting daylight into a goods-shed is
from the roof, and a liberal extent of roof-glazing should be
provided for the full length of the building, and so distributed
as to be well over the loading-banks. In tropical countries the
amount of roof light must be reduced, on account of the great
glare from the sunlight.

An ample supply of artificial light will be necessary when
working after dark or during the night. In some instances the
goods-sheds in large and important business centres have one or
more upper storys, in which goods are warehoused pending the
owners' instructions, the goods being transferred between the
loading-banks and upper floors by lifts or cranes.

A proper supply of weighing machines for carts, drays, rail-
way trucks, and packages on the loading-banks will be necessary
to facilitate the checking of the goods.

There is always a large proportion of traffic which can be
dealt with outside the goods-sheds, either on loading-banks or
cartways alongside the sidings. Outside loading-banks should
be of good width, with approach roads of easy gradient. In
tropical countries a light shed, open on all sides, is frequently
erected over a portion of these outside banks, to protect the goods
and workmen from the heat of the sun. Fixed cranes or travel-
ling cranes will be required for lifting the large packages, heavy
castings, and logs of timber. Where there is a large cattle traffic,

282 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

separate sidings, loading-banks, and approach roads should be
set apart for the purpose, with suitable water-troughs and
cleansing appliances. Horses can be unloaded at any loading-
bank, but for the more valuable class of animals and for carriages,
it is usual to construct a special horse and carriage dock, as
shown in Fig. 430, the carriages being wheeled off the end of the
carriage truck, as indicated in the section. Cartways alongside
the sidings are very convenient for unloading coals, stone, bricks,
sand, lime, and many other materials which have to be passed
out of the trucks in small quantities at a time. To encourage
and facilitate traffic at roadside stations, traders are frequently
allowed to stack or store large supplies of some of the above
materials on ground set apart for the purpose near some con-
venient siding, the stock being disposed of in detail to suit the
local requirements. Coal-drops are sometimes adopted where
there is a large trade in that commodity. They are constructed
by carrying the line of rails on strong balks of timber or small
girders placed across the top of walled-in coal-yards or divided
areas. The coal is thrown out of the trucks, and falls a depth of
15 or 20 feet into the yard below. In consequence of the height
from rail-level to ground a large tonnage can be piled up, and
stored in a small area, and the unloading of the trucks effected
very rapidly, particularly so where special trucks with opening
floors or hinged bottoms are used for the purpose. In many
cases capacious roofed-in sheds are built for storing coals, lime,
cement, grain, or other materials liable to deterioration from the
weather. These sheds are built alongside a siding ; the contents
of the trucks are unloaded or thrown into the sheds through
doors spaced to correspond to the railway-truck doors, and are
carted away through doorways on the opposite side.

It is customary to place buffer-stops of some form at the ter-
mination of dead-end sidings in a station, to bring to a stand such
carriages or waggons as may be approaching with too much speed
to be stopped without the interposition of some substantial barrier.

Figs. 430, 431, 432, and 433 are sketches of some of the
many kinds of buffer-stops, and will explain themselves. In
Fig. 430 the buffer-stop is made of flange rails, and is shown as
fitted in a carriage-dock with wrought-iron plate landing, A,
and plate-iron hinged flaps, B, B. The latter are turned over,
and rest on the floor of the carriage-truck, to form a pathway
when taking on or off a vehicle.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. a«3

284 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 431 shows a buffer-stop made of double-head or bull-
head rails ; and Fig. 432 is a buffer-stop made of heavy timbers.

Fig. 433 shows a very simple buffer-stop frequently adopted
for sidings where there is not much traffic It is made of good
old sleepers bound together with old double-head rails, and the
interior filled with earth or clay.

In addition to the buildings alluded to in the foregoing
description, the engineer has to design and construct very many
others in connection with railways. These will include large
running-sheds for stabling working locomotives ; sheds for
housing carriages ; workshops for building and repairing engines,
carriages, and waggons; foundries; large stores for materials:
offices; dwelling-houses; mess-rooms, etc.; many of them in-
volving questions of difficult foundations, and nearly all of
them requiring special strength and stability to meet the heavy
weights and vibrations to which they are subjected.

CHAPTER V.

Sorting-sidings — Turn-tables— Traversers — Water-Tanks and Water-Columns.

Sorting-ridings. — On many important long main lines it is
necessary to establish special independent sidings for sorting or
arranging waggons of merchandise and minerals. Where there
are only two lines of rails to serve for the UP and down
service of a heavy passenger and goods traffic, it is imperative to
restrict those lines as much as possible to the actual transit of
trains, and not to block them by unnecessary occupation for
shunting purposes. A goods train running a long distance
collects waggons from many roadside stations, and at some of
them several waggons will be taken on, to be forwarded to
various and widely distant destinations. The accumulated train
comprises waggons which must be divided out into groups, to be
passed on either to distant sections of the same railway system,
or on to neighbouring lines. To avoid interruption to the train-
working, and the delay of complicated shunting operations at the
roadside stations, the waggons are attached just as they are
picked up, and the work of sorting is allowed to stand over
until the train arrives at the place assigned for the purpose. A
site for sorting-sidings is generally selected where the ground
and gradient are favourable, and where ample room can be
obtained for a large number of short parallel lines, with space for
future extensions. The arrangement that naturally suggests
itself is that of a series of fan-shaped sidings leading out of main
shunting lines, separate from the main-traffic lines. In some
cases the sorting-sidings are laid down with dead-ends, as in Fig.

434, and in others they are made as through sidings, connecting
at both ends with shunting lines and main-traffic lines, as in Fig.

435. Each of the sidings is usually made sufficiently long to
hold a complete train of sorted waggons, and the number of

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

1

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 287

them will depend upon the number of sections to be served, and
the amount of waggons to be sorted. Sometimes the sidings are
laid with a slight falling gradient leading away from the main
shunting lines, to facilitate the running out of the waggons into
the respective sidings.

An arriving goods train is first drawn out of the main-traffic
lines into one of the shunting lines, and then handed over to the
staff of men in charge of the sorting operations, who at once mark
the waggons according to the number or designation of the
particular siding into which they have to be placed. A suitable
engine is generally set apart for this work, and in a very short
time the entire train is divided out by one or more waggons at a
time, and distributed into the various sidings, representing
different sections of the line, or groups to be handed over to
neighbouring railways. When one of these sorting-sidings
contains a full complement of waggons, an engine is attached,
and the train despatched to its destination, leaving the siding
clear for another set of waggons. Where the trains to be sorted
are very numerous, two or more shunting-engines may be
engaged working at the same time on distinct sets of shunting
lines and sidings. Sometimes it may be expedient to have one
lot of sorting-sidings leading off the up line, and another lot
leading off the down line, to meet the requirements of trains
coming and going in both directions. With sidings well laid
out, and fitted with ample facilities, a well-organized staff can
carry out a very large amount of work both expeditiously and
economically. There are several of these sorting-sidings stations
in operation, where from one thousand to two thousand waggons
are sorted and marshalled into trains every twenty-four hours.

The above diagram sketches merely illustrate the general
principle of the sorting-sidings, and may be modified and
enlarged in many ways to suit the traffic requirements and local
surroundings.

Turn-tables.— Turn-tables revolving on fixed centres are made
of various sizes according to their use for engines, carriages,
or waggons. The carrying-beams may be made of cast-iron,
wrought-iron, or steel, but the latter material is the most suitable
for tables of more than 20 feet diameter. For small turn-tables,
cast-iron beams will serve very well, for although more liable to
fracture, they will not suffer so much from rust and oxidization
as wrought-iron or steeL

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 289

Opinions as to the most convenient position and use of turn-
tables have undergone a considerable modification during the past
twenty or twenty-five years. Circular and semi-circular running-
sheds for engines, as in Figs. 436 and 437, are not so often
adopted now as formerly. Although compact and accessible in
theory, they possess the one great drawback that when the turn-
table in the centre becomes deranged by wear or accident, none
of the engines on the standing-lines inside the building can be
taken out until the turn-table is again put into working order.
A stock of from twenty to thirty engines might thus be put en-
tirely out of the service for a day or more. This objection is
considered to be of so serious a nature that running-sheds are
now almost always constructed of rectangular form, of which
Fig. 438 is a type.

With this description of shed, the lines of rails are laid down
parallel to one another, and the engine turn-table is placed on a
line separate and distinct from those lines forming connections
with the shed.

Where there is a large goods traffic, an endeavour is generally
made to so lay down the goods-sheds and approach lines and
sidings, that the full complement of waggons may be shunted in
or out of the shed at one operation. This arrangement, which
dispenses with turn-tables altogether, admits of the ready
removal of a central or far-end waggon, without the necessity of
taking out so many others in front one by one over the turn-
table. At the same time, there are large numbers of these
waggon turn-tables in use, and there are many cases where access
to side sheds or detached stores can only be obtained by turn-
tables.

A goods-shed and lines laid down with turn-tables, as in Fig.
439, will always be more tedious and costly to work than one
laid down with direct through lines, as in Fig. 440. Should
either of the turn-tables shown on Fig. 439 get out of order and
become incapable of turning, then the entire side of the shed
controlled by that table will be rendered useless until the defect
be remedied

Engine turn-tables are rarely made with more than one road
on the top. The most modern types generally consist of two
strong wrought-iron or steel-plate girders well braced together,
and securely attached to a middle framework which rests on
and revolves round a centre-piece fixed on a solid foundation.

u

290 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

To the ends of the girders are attached large roller wheels which
travel round a solid iron or steel roller-path laid down along the
circumference. These modern turn-tables are generally worked
on the balancing principle, by bringing the engine and tender to
a stand in such a position on the rails that the greater portion of
the weight is thrown on to the cup-shaped steel centre, so that &
small force applied to the long outrigged hand-levers at the ends
is sufficient to turn one of the heaviest locomotives. Figs. 441
$nd 442 give sketch plan and section of one of these steel-plate
girder turn-tables, which has few parts, and very little to get out
of order. The end rollers guide the table when making any
portion of a revolution, and carry such part of the weight as
may not be taken up by the centre. A recess is shown in side
wall to facilitate the inspection of end rollers. In the earlier
forms of engine turn-tables, the revolving movement was effected
by attaching to the upper portion of the girders a strong winch,
which acted upon gearing fixed either to the end rollers, or
direct on to a toothed ring forming part of the roller-path. In
cases where the engine turn-table was in constant use, as in con-
nection with a large running-shed, the winch was sometimes
driven by a small steam-engine to expedite the movement.

The great increase in the lengths and weights of modem
locomotives has necessitated the removal of many of the old
small turn-tables, and replacing them with others of 45 or 50 feet,
or more, in diameter.

An engine turn-table is a costly item in railway requirements,
not only in the girder-work, but in the large amount of building
in the side walls and centre pier, and an effort is always made to
avoid the outlay unless the table can be placed where it may be
of permanent use. In the construction of foreign railways, and
in our colonies, where the lines are opened in sections as the
work goes forward, the temporary arrangement shown in Fig.
443 is frequently used instead of an engine turn-table. The
sketch will almost explain itself. On the main line, A, B, C, D,
switches are placed at B and C, from which turn out curved
lines, uniting at the switches E. An engine proceeding from A,
and passing round the curve B, E, G, then round curve G, E, C, and
back along main line, D, C, B, A, will be turned round as efficiently
as on a turn-table. The writer has used this arrangement abroad
with great advantage. It involves very little work or expense
beyond laying down the permanent way, and so soon as the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

292 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

temporary terminus of the line has been advanced farther ahead,
the rails and sleepers can be lifted and used again elsewhere.

Figs. 444 and 445 give sketch plan and section of a waggon
turn-table which has been largely adopted. The centre should
be securely fixed on a solid foundation of masonry, brickwork,
or concrete. The deep outer cast-iron ring is made in segments,
properly fitted and bolted together, and fastened down to the
foundation course. The stop-checks are cast on to this outer
ring. Two roads, at right angles to each other, are laid on the
turn-table, so that waggons to or from the goods-shed have only
to make one quarter turn of the table. The top is generally
covered with either chequered iron plates or timber to give good
foothold for the men and horses which have to pass over in
moving the waggons. If properly balanced, the table is easily
turned by men pushing at the opposite corners of the waggon, or
by a horse and tail-rope, or by hydraulic power through &
capstan. In many cases of bad or soft foundations these small
turn-tables are erected on a strong framework of creosoted
timber.

Carriage turn-tables are now very rarely used. With the old
short four-wheeled carriages the moderate-size turn-table was
convenient for transferring an extra carriage to or from a spare
carriage-line alongside the making-up train at a platform, bat
modern carriages are now so much longer, some of them twice
the length, or more, than formerly, that nothing less than an
engine turn-table would be large enough for them. Sometimes a
carriage traverser is used for this station work, but much more
frequently these long carriages are shunted on or off the making-
up train by simply running them in or out through the nearest
switches and cross-over road.

Fig. 446 is a sketch of a carriage-traverser, of length to suit
an ordinary six-wheeled carriage. The length, however, may be
extended to take on a bogie carriage or any other long carriage.
The framing is made of wrought-iron or steel, well braced
together. The carrying wheels, W, W, run upon rails laid at
right angles to the running-line or siding, and the carriage is
moved on to or off the traverser by means of the hinged ramps
shown at R, R. A carriage, once on the traverser, may be moved
across one or several lines of running road, according to the
extent of traverser line laid down ; and this appliance is very
suitable for large terminal stations and carriage-repair shops. It

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

— no. 4-4-6 —

294 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

will be observed that the operations of the turn-table and the
traverser are quite distinct. With the former a vehicle can be
transferred from one line to another, and also turned completely
round ; but with the traverser the vehicles are simply moved in
a parallel direction, from one line to another, and when it is
necessary to turn or change a vehicle end for end, as in the ease
of a mail-bag-catching apparatus van or a special saloon, then
resort must be had to a turn-table.

Cranes. — A large portion of the merchandise conveyed on
railways must be lifted into or out of the trucks by cranes.
The position, description, and capacity of these will depend upon
the materials to be handled. Large slow-working powerful
cranes will be necessary for raising heavy castings, large logs of
timber, or massive blocks of stone ; while the small quick-acting
cranes will be more suitable for dealing with the lighter packages,
casks, and bales.

Fig. 447 shows a gantry or overhead crane, used for lifting
heavy weights out of an ordinary road-waggon, carrying them
a short distance, and then depositing them in a railway track,
or vice versd. Double-flanged rollers, attached to the ends of the
platform C, C, run upon the rails R, R, which are fixed on the top
of the beams B, B, secured to the verticals A, A. The working
length of the gantry is only limited by the number of the
verticals, and this, being the fixed portion of the work, may he
extended out to any distance required. The travelling or carry-
ing girders of the platform C, C may be made of wrought-iron*
steel, or timber. They must be strongly framed and braced
together as a platform to carry the lifting machinery and weight
lifted, and have convenient gearing for effecting the transverse
or side-to-side movement, as well as a horizontal movement along
the line of rails on top of the verticals. Where the fixed portion
of the gantry is of considerable length, two or more travelling
platforms can be used. In the sketch given above, the entire
gantry is shown as made of timber, but iron or steel can be
equally well adopted, and continuous masonry or brickwork
walls may be built to serve as verticals.

Fig. 448 is a sketch of a small handy crane for warehouse
work; it is quick in action, and restricted to weights not
exceeding twelve hundredweight. This form of crane may to
strengthened to lift still greater loads, but in doing so the
additional size of the parts, and the corresponding extra labonr

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

295

FlOO* LEVEL.

/? A/L L EVEL.

296 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

in working, detract from its efficiency as a quick-acting crane
for light weights.

Fig. 449 shows an ordinary fixed three-ton jib crane, a very
convenient size for general station work. The centre pillar is
fixed into a bed of masonry or a solid block of concrete. The
jib is of wrought-iron or steel, those materials being so much
more reliable than timber, and very little more expensive. This
crane must be fixed so that in one direction the jib may com-
mand the centre of a railway truck, while in the other it can
conveniently raise the packages to or from the carts or loading-
bank alongside. In the sketch the crane is shown as placed on
the loading-bank, but it may be placed on the same level as the
rails if preferred. Cranes of this type and strength are fre-
quently found necessary for the inside work of goods-sheds,
where packages of considerable weight have to be handled. A
very similar class of jib-crane is constantly made for lifting
weights of five or ten tons or more, the different parts being
made stronger and heavier to correspond to the weights to be
raised.

Fig. 450 shows a five-ton travelling crane. Although more
costly, it has the advantage over a fixed crane that it can be
moved about from place to place. It is mounted on a very
strong waggon framework, and provided with springs and spring
buffers. Instead of moving round a long deep centre, the jib of
the travelling-crane is arranged to work round a bevelled metal
roller-path laid down on the platform of the waggon, and has
a heavy counterweight loaded to correspond to its capacity.
Before commencing to lift any weight strong oak blocks or filling
pieces are inserted between the tops of the axle-boxes and the
under side of main beams of waggon, to relieve the springs of
the pressure which would arise from the weight lifted. From
the four corners of the waggon are suspended chains carrying
gripping-hooks to be attached or clipped round the rails. These
gripping-hooks, when firmly secured to the rails, prevent the
crane from tilting over, as the weight of the waggon and also of
the rails and sleepers are brought into play to counteract any
tendency to throw the crane off its proper balance. With the
larger size travelling cranes, capable of lifting ten or fifteen tons
or more, outriggers of joist or X-iron, moving in slides, are run
out at right angles on either side, and can be loaded with bars of
iron or other weights to form a counterpoise.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 297

A medium-sized travelling-crane is a most useful appliance
about a railway station ; it has a much greater range of utility
than a fixed crane, but it is not always appreciated as it should
be. It merely requires a line of rails laid down parallel to the
rails of siding, and may be placed either on the same level as the
siding, or on the level of the loading-bank. Being laid flush
with the roadway, the rails do not present any obstacle to the
passage of carts or movement of merchandise. As one waggon
on the siding is loaded or unloaded, the crane can be moved
along its own line of rails, and be put to work at another with-
out the necessity of moving or drawing out any of the railway
waggons on the siding. Five, ten, or twenty, or more railway
waggons can be dealt with in this way, according to the length
of crane-line laid down. The crane can also be readily removed
to another part of the station-yard, or to another station along
the line. For stations with an intermittent or spasmodic traffic
in heavy timber, large blocks of stone, or other unwieldy
articles, a travelling-crane is particularly suitable, as it will
meet all the wants so far as the lifting is concerned, and when
the rush of traffic is over, it can be easily transferred to some
other sphere of usefulness. The crane-siding itself is never very
costly, as the rails are generally old rails taken out of the main
line, and laid on good second-hand sleepers. They have little to
do, and merely form a track for the moving crane.

Fig. 451 is a sketch of an ordinary Qoliath crane constructed
of timber. The general arrangement and capabilities of this
crane are somewhat similar to those of the gantry shown in Fig.
447. Both of them are designed to. lift heavy weights, and move
them sideways into, or out of, ordinary road waggons, but the
methods of application are different. In the gantry the
verticals are permanently fixed, whereas in the Qoliath the verti-
cals and overhead girders are all attached and braced together,
forming a complete framework' which is carried by double
flanged rollers running on the lines of rails R, R. The winches
or gearing for lifting the weights, or slinging them sideways, or
for propelling the crane forward on the rails, are attached to the
verticals as shown, and are worked from the ground-level instead
of the overhead platform, as indicated in the gantry. As each
Goliath crane is complete in itself, there is nothing to prevent
two or three of them working at the same time on a long length
of crane-line.

298

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

FIG.+5I

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 299

Fig. 452 shows an ordinary derrick crane, which, on account
of the large and varying sweep of the jib, is found very con-
venient for certain classes of work. It occupies a considerable
amount of room, and its adoption is therefore limited to situa-
tions where space is of secondary importance.

All the cranes described above are shown as worked by hand-
power, but they may be worked by steam,, hydraulic machinery,
or electricity. Manual power will be the most economical
-where the use of a crane is only occasional, but it would be too
slow and costly where there is constant heavy work.

Water-tanks. — A supply of good water forms an important
item in railway working, and ample provision must be made at
all principal stations for the requirements of engines and general
station purposes. According to the locality, the water may
either be procured from the main of some established water-
works company, or be pumped from a well, or forced up from a
stream by a ram, or brought down by gravitation in pipes from
a spring or stream at a distance. Water thus obtained is con-
ducted into tanks placed at a height of 18 or 20 feet, or more,
above the level of the rails, and forms a storage supply from
which deliveries can be made at a fair pressure and in large
volume. The tanks may be made of cast-iron, wrought-iron, or
steel, or even of wood. In the great timber-producing countries
abroad, water-tanks, some of them of large capacity, are very
frequently made of wood, the circular or half-cask form being
preferred; but at home, and on European lines generally, wooden
tanks are rarely used except for temporary purposes. Cast-iron
being less liable to deterioration from rust than wrought-iron or
steel, is much used for water-tanks.

Figs. 453 to 457 are sketches of a medium-sized cast-iron
water-tank, to hold about 7800 gallons. The size may be varied
both in length, width, and depth, without in any great measure
altering the type. The lower portion, or tank-house, may be of
stone, brick, wood, or iron framework, and may be utilized as a
pump-room, store, or lamp-room. In the sketch given a row of
cast-iron girders are placed across the top of the walls of the
tank-house, to carry the tank, the plate-joints of the latter being
made to coincide with the centre lines of the girders. The
lower and upper edges of the tank-plates are shown curved in
section, the former for appearance and facility of cleaning,
and the latter to check the tendency of the water rippling or

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 301

splashing over the sides when disturbed during high winds. The
' large pipe, A, is securely bolted at the bottom of the tank, and
forms a shield or funnel through which the supply pipe, B, passes
upwards into the tank. C is an overflow, or waste pipe, to
' carry away any surplus which may find its way into the tank
' after the water has risen to its fixed maximum height All the
contact surfaces of the cast-iron tank-plates must be accurately
chipped or planed, and fitted to ensure water-tight joints. Stay-
rods must be placed at frequent intervals, connecting the vertical
or outer plates to the horizontal or floor plates. When required
to hold more than 20,000 gallons, it is better to make the tank
, in two parts, by placing a permanent plate petition across the
middle, in reality making two separate tanks, which can be
connected or disconnected at will. The double tank arrange-
ment gives additional strength, and possesses the advantage that
the one tank can be emptied and cleaned out while the other
remains in service.

Water-tanks constructed of wrought-iron or steel plates are

usually made circular in form, with vertical sides. The floor-

\ plates must be either carried on small girders, as in the cast-iron

'. tank, or be strengthened internally with angle-irons, tee-irons,

and tie-rods. The rivetting must be well done, all joints sound

and watertight. This class of tank must be kept well painted,

or oxidization will take place very rapidly. The arrangement

of inlet, waste-pipe, and delivery pipe may be the same as for the

cast-iron tank. Although frequently seen abroad, these circular

wrought-iron tanks are not often adopted at home. By many

the appearance of the circular tank is considered inferior to one

of neat rectangular shape, and the form of the round tower does

not lend itself so conveniently for use as a pump-room or store.

There may be no practical difficulty in constructing a large
circular wooden vat or water-tank, but there cannot be any
great actual economy, except in those countries where suitable
timber is very cheap, and iron very dear. The wooden tank
must be made of selected materials, and by skilled workmen ;
but however carefully constructed it cannot be expected to last
so long as an iron tank. In many parts of the United States of
America there are excellent examples of the circular wooden
tank, strongly put together, and covered with a light ornamental
roof. Numbers of these wooden tanks have been erected there
in places where the cost of carriage alone of an iron tank would

3Q2 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

have been a serious item, and where suitable timber was fortu-
nately close at hand.

In cases where engines are watered direct from a water-tank,
a simple delivery-valve, as shown in the sketch (Fig. 458X will
answer the purpose. This valve has to be pulled open by the
chain and lever, D, and when released falls with its own weight,
and is kept close by the pressure of the water above. The
delivery-pipe should not be less than 7 or 8 inches in diameter, to
accelerate the filling of the tenders. Where water has to be
delivered to engines at two or more places in a station-yard, and
the supply derived from the same principal tank, the result may
be obtained either by laying down 7 or 8-inch main pipes from the
principal tank to separate water-columns, or by erecting two or
more pedestal water-tanks, similar to Figs. 459 to 462, each of
which holds a little more than the average quantity for one tender,
and can be fed from the principal tank by a comparatively small
pipe of 3 or 4 inches in diameter. It is simply a question of
expense — whether it is cheaper to lay down a long length of 7 or
8-inch main pipe and ordinary water-columns, or to adopt the
small pipes and pedestal tanks.

Figs. 459 to 462 are sketches of a medium-sized pedestal
water-tank to hold 1200 gallons. The supporting column must
have a very wide base, bolted down to a solid foundation. The
tank itself, made circular in plan, is generally constructed of
light plates of wrought-iron or steel, the lower portion or floor
of tank being very securely attached to the vertical column.
Notwithstanding their top-heavy appearance, these pedestal
tanks can be made very firm and steady if enough width be
given to the base-plate, and the tank properly fixed to the
column. Water is led into these pedestal tanks by a small pipe
passing up inside the supporting column, and the delivery may
be effected by a simple valve, as explained for Fig. 458.

Fig. 463 shows one type of water column for watering engines.
The wide base-plate is bolted down on to a foundation of stone-
work, brickwork, or concrete, and the main supply pipe (not less
than 7 or 8 inches in diameter) is carried up inside the column,
and connected with the screw valve, A, which regulates the
delivery to the tenders. The curved top, which forms the outlet,
and carries a leather hose, works on a swivel joint, and can be
swung round, either to the right or left, for convenience of
supplying engines on one or two standing-lines. The delivery

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 303

valve can be opened or closed by the small hand- wheel B, which
is conveniently accessible to the man on the tender. On the
above sketch (Fig. 463) the water column is shown placed at an
ordinary normal distance from the rails ; but in cases where
there is considerable space between the two lines of rails, or
where a platform intervenes, the swinging arm may be extended
oat to the necessary length, and counterbalanced as shown in
Fig. 464.

CHAPTER VI.

Comparative Weights of some Types of Modern Locomotives.

Weights of Locomotive Engines. — The demand for higher speeds
of passenger trains, with more conveniences, luxuries, and con-
sequent increased weights in the carriages, has naturally led to
greatly increased power and weight of the locomotives devoted
to the passenger service. Although these engine weights have
so largely increased during the past twenty-five years, there is
nothing to indicate that they have yet reached the maximum,
The tendency is still to increase, and will doubtless continue, 90
long as the permanent way can be made to sustain such enormous
rolling loads. Locomotives for goods trains have also increased
in power and size, but perhaps not in the same proportion as
those for the passenger service. There is not the same dis-
position to expedite the transit of goods and minerals, which do
not deteriorate during a long journey. Perishable articles, such
as fish, fruit, and milk, are usually conveyed by passenger trains,
or trains set apart specially for the purpose.

The heavier engine doubtless possesses greater tractive
power, but apart from the question of tractive power is the all-
important one of steadiness and safety on the rails. A loco-
motive passing round a curve, even at a moderate velocity,
produces disturbances in proportion to the capability of the
machine to adapt itself to the altered position, and if both the
engine and permanent way are constructed so as to be almost
unyielding, then destructive wear and tear and increased risk of
derailment must ensue. The adoption of the four-wheel bogie
truck to the locomotives on our home and continental lines—
although very slow in coming — has contributed greatly to their
improvement, enabling the weight to be distributed over a
longer, yet more flexible wheel-base, affording greater facility
and comparative safety in traversing curves; and rolling, or

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

305

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306 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

passing over the rails, with as little injurious effect to thema>
possible. It is strange to find that the four-wheel bogie truck,
originally designed in England in the early days of the railway
era, should for so long have met with so little favour on thi>
side of the Atlantic. The Americans, at all times prompt to
recognize any appropriate mechanical arrangement, adopted tie
bogie truck upon its first introduction into the States. They
have worked out many improvements in the details, and upon
the thousands of locomotives on their vast network of railways,
the bogie truck, in one form or another, has been universally
adopted from the beginning.

On our home and continental lines, the modern express
locomotive, with a four-wheel bogie truck in front, is a muck
longer vehicle than its predecessors, and its total weight i-
distributed over a greater wheel-base; but the actual weight
placed upon the driving-wheels, or on the coupled wheels, is now
very much in excess of former practice, and must be taken into
consideration when working out the details of girders and cross-
girders of under-line bridges. Numbers of girder bridges have
had to be taken down and replaced with stronger structures, not
for reasons of wear or decay, but simply because they were
incapable of carrying with safety the modern heavy rolling
loads. Present experience points out the expediency of pro-
viding in all new under-line bridges a liberal margin of strength
to meet future developments.

Figs. 465 to 479 are diagram sketches of a few modern types
of locomotives, giving leading dimensions and weights, and may
be found useful for reference when working out the necessary
strengths of the various portions of bridge-work. Upon com-
paring some of the principal particulars with those of the earlier
class, it will be noted that in many of the modern types the
piston area has been doubled, the boiler-pressure doubled, and
the weight of the engine doubled also.

The engines shown in Figs. 465 and 467 have great weights
placed on the single driving-wheels, and should only be used
where there is a very strong permanent way. With the four-
wheel coupled engines, the weight for adhesion can be distributed
between the driving and trailing wheels.

Fig. 473 represents a very excellent type of American engine
which has been extensively adopted in the United States for
many years. The six coupled wheels distribute the weight over

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. yx)

a fairly long wheel-base, retaining their united weight for
adhesion. The four-wheel bogie truck in front forms a valuable
path-finder to the engine, both for passing round curves or on
straight line. This class of engine is very serviceable for various
kinds of traffic, and is particularly suitable for lines where the
rails and fastenings are comparatively light. In the example
shown, the flanges are turned off the centre pair of coupled
wheels ; but for lines where the curves are of small radius, the
flanges may be turned off the leading pair of coupled wheels,
instead of the centre pair, to reduce the length of rigid wheel-
base. This type of engine has latterly been introduced on
various European and foreign railways, and recently on the High-
land Railway of Scotland, as shown in Fig. 470. The writer has
had engines of this class under his charge abroad, and found
them to be most useful for heavy passenger and goods-train
service. They run very steadily, are easy on the permanent
way, and light in repairs. As they become better known they
will be more appreciated, and will doubtless before long super-
sede in many cases the rigid six-wheel-coupled goods engine.
The principal objection of any importance that can be raised
against them is that on many lines the present engine turn-tables
are too small for such long engines ; but it would be far more
economical in the long run to enlarge a few turn-tables than to
continue the adoption of rigid engines which from their form
and arrangement tend to unnecessary wear to themselves and
the permanent way.

Fig. 476 shows an average sample of the ordinary six- wheel-
coupled goods engine in use on so many of our home railways.
Where the curves are easy and the permanent way strong, the
drawback of the long rigid wheel-base may not be so apparent ;
but for a line abounding in sharp curves, perhaps no more
destructive machine could possibly be devised than the ordinary
six-wheel-coupled goods engine. Without any flexibility, forced
along with great power, and too often driven at unnecessary
high speeds, engines of this type have too small a margin of
safety when traversing the curved portions of the road. A
slight unevenness in the rails, or a sharp flange on the wheel
may supply all that is wanting to cause the engine to leave the
track, and the probability that such risks are more common than
is supposed, is far from satisfactory. The great weight of the
engine doubtless tends to keep it on the track, but the rapid

3io

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

QAVC£ 4~*i

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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= S0.6Z

312 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

wear of the tyres, and of the inside of the rail-heads clearly
demonstrate the enormous amount of friction and abrasion that
takes place.

Fig. 477 represents a type of eight-wheel-coupled engine
designed for hauling passenger or goods trains over long length*
of heavy mountain inclines. The engine is a large one in every
way, and of great total weight, but the weight is distributed
over a long wheel-base and without imposing a greater tonnage
per pair of wheels than is done in some of the smaller and less
powerful engines. The flanges are turned off the leading pair
and third pair of coupled wheels reducing the rigid wheel-base
for curves to 9 feet 8 inches. The four-wheel bogie truck in
front carries only a moderate weight, being so close to the
coupled wheels. Engines of this description require a strong
permanent way, as there is a total weight of 60 tons on the four
pairs of coupled wheels standing on a wheel-base of 15 feet
6 inches.

Figs. 478 and 479 are types of tank-engines in use on some of
the narrow-gauge (3 feet) railways. In general design they are
somewhat similar to the modern class of engine on main lines of
4 feet 8 \ inches gauge, with four-wheel bogie truck in front, and
four wheels or six wheels coupled, but with all the parts and
weights smaller, to suit the narrow gauge and lighter permanent
way.

The extended use of the bogie truck is an admission of its
advantage over the fixed-wheel arrangement, both for distribu-
tion of weight and facility in passing round curves ; but although
it is now so largely adopted for engines and carriages on our
home and continental railways, it is somewhat of an anomaly to
find it so very rarely used for tenders. In the United States all
the locomotive tenders — and many of them of very large size
and weight — are carried on two four-wheel bogie trucks, and
traverse the curves as easily as the engines. On this side of the
Atlantic, the prevailing custom is to mount the tender on six
rigid wheels ; and as many of these tenders weigh as much as
from 35 to 40 tons in working order, and have a rigid wheel-base
of 15 feet, it will be seen at a glance that much unnecessary
friction and wear and tear would be avoided by substituting two
four-wheel bogie trucks for the fixed wheels.

CHAPTER VII.

Signals— Interlocking— Block Telegraph and Electric Train Staff Instruments.

Signals. — Railway tradition alleges that on one of the early lines
opened for passenger traffic, the precautions for public safety
were considered to have been fulfilled by providing a man on
horseback to ride along the track between the rails in the front
of the locomotive engine, to give warning to persons strolling on
the line, and to check the advance of the train when necessary.
A very short experience of this method of working proved that
the full capabilities of the locomotive could not be obtained from
a restricted speed of seven or eight miles an hour, and a more
comprehensive system of signalling had to be devised. By fencing
in on both sides of the line, the public were prevented from making
a general highway or promenade along the railway, and the
problem was reduced therefore to the signalling for the trains
alone.

Flags of different colours, held by flagmen stationed at suit-
able places, answered the purpose for a while, or so long as the
authorized running speed did not prevent the train being brought
to a stand after sighting a flag warning the engine-driver to stop.
As speeds were increased, a longer or more distant view of signals
became imperative, and tall posts, or semaphore signals, were
introduced. Well-defined blades or discs placed on high posts
were easily worked from the ground-level, and could be seen for
long distances, thus enabling the trains to be controlled or brought
to a stand before reaching the signal. The efficiency of the
principle once recognized, improvements and additions were
made from time to time, until we have the simple acting tall
semaphore signal so universally in use at the present time. The
position of the signal arms or blades in the daylight, and the
colours shown by the lamps at night, form the code of signals for
the proper working of the train service ; and as the signal arms
and lamps are both worked simultaneously by the same gearing, it

3 H RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

is only necessary to light the lamps to put the signals in complete
condition for night- working. For some years, when the traffic
was small, with trains at low speeds and at considerable intervals,
one double-arm semaphore signal-post at a station was made to
serve for all purposes; but as the train service became more
frequent and more rapid, it was found that another semaphore
or tall post signal, was necessary to give warning to the engine-
driver some distance back before reaching the station or home
signed. More particularly was this necessary at those stations
where it was not intended that every train should stop. This
new signal, called the distant signal, very soon came into
general use. It was placed at distances varying from 400 to
800 yards away back from the station or home signal, and was
worked by a long strained wire extending from the distant
signal to a ground-lever placed near the home signal, the levers
for these distant signals and home signals being thus near
together and under the control of one man. More recently it
was found necessary to introduce another important wire- worked
signal called a starting signal, which is placed at the outgoing
or departure end of the passenger platforms, lines, or station
sidings, to prevent any train or engine starting or proceeding on
its journey until such starting signal is lowered to indicate that
the line is clear.

These simple, independent, hand-worked semaphore signals
did good service for many years, but being independent and in
no way physically connected with one another at junctions, or
stations, or with the switches they were intended to control, it
was quite possible for mistakes to arise where everything
depended upon the accuracy and prompt decision of the signal-
man. The possibility that such mistakes could occur, and the
certainty that they actually did occur, and too often with most
disastrous results, led gradually to the grouping and interlocking
of a large number of signal levers and switch levers together in
one signal cabin. The advantages of the concentrating and
interlocking of signals and switches are twofold. In the first
place, one man in the signal cabin can work and control the
levers for a large number of switches and signals, where formerly
several men were required to be located at various places in the
station-yard; but the second, and by far the most important
advantage, is that with proper interlocking arrangements it is
practically impossible to give conflicting signals.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 31S

With a modern interlocking frame, and assuming the normal
position of all the signals to be at danger, then before a signal
can be lowered for an approaching engine or train, all the
switches and corresponding signals, from any lines or sidings
connecting with the line to be signalled dear must first be set so
as to prevent any engine or train coming out of such connecting
lines or switches on to the line to be made clear. In a similar
manner, before the points and signals can be set to permit an
engine or train to pass from a siding on to the main line all the
necessary signals must first be set to danger to prevent the
approach in either direction of any engine or train on the main
line about to be occupied. The mechanical arrangements of the
interlocking frame are so exact and complete as to effectually
prevent any but the proper combination being made. An
untrained or inexperienced signalman might inadvertently
attempt to pull over a wrong lever, only to find it securely
locked and immovable under the control of other levers. The
proper sequence of levers must be made, and the accurately
adjusted mechanism automatically prevents mistakes which
formerly occurred with the old hand-worked signals from the
oversight or confusion of the signalman.

The interlocked switches or points are worked from the
signal-cabin by light wrought-iron tubing (termed rodding) or
channel-shaped iron bars supported on fixed iron rollers, and the
signals by galvanized wires running over light pulleys. Modern
signals are always weighted at the signal-post, so that in the
event of the breaking of the pulling-wire they will fly back to
their normal position of danger.

The facility and precision secured by the interlocking
machinery enabled other valuable accessories to be introduced
for the more complete signalling and protection of train-work-
ing. Amongst these may be mentioned the facing-point bolt-
lock and rocking-bar, signal-detectors at points, and throw-off or
trap points.

With the old-fashioned hand-worked switches the man stand-
ing alongside could see whether the sliding-rails were properly
closed, and also when the last vehicle of the train had passed over
them ; but when important main-line-facing switches or points
are worked by rodding from a signal-cabin some distance away,
it is necessary to have some reliable means to ensure that the
sliding-rails are actually brought close home, and also to prevent

3i6 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

the switches being moved again until the entire train has passed
over them. A set of switches may be carefully made and work
well, but it is quite possible for some fracture or obstruction, to
intervene and prevent them closing properly. If a train or
engine were passing through them in a trailing direction, as
indicated in Fig. 345, the wheels would most probably force the
sliding-rail home, and no disturbance would arise. If, however,
the train were coming in the opposite or facing direction, the
chances are that some of the wheels would take one road and
some the other, and cause a derailment. The same casualty
would occur if the switches were moved during the passage of
the train.

To guard against the above contingencies, the facing-point
bolt-lock and rocking-bar have been introduced. The system is
applied in various forms, but the arrangement shown in Fig. 480
will explain the principle generally.

A strong casting, A, is securely bolted to the top of the sleeper
■carrying the chairs on which rest the point ends of the sliding-
rails. This casting has an internal groove or chamber formed for
its entire length from C to D, as indicated by the dotted lines,
and in which slides the locking-bolt B. The point ends of the
switch or sliding-rails are connected by the transverse rod E,
which is forged into a vertical bar form for that portion of its
length, which passes through the opening, F, prepared for it in
the casting A. In this vertical bar a hole or slot is cut to corre
spond to the exact size of the locking-bolt B, and at a distance
to suit the sliding-rails when pulled over to their properly closed
position. This locking-bolt, B, will not pass through the hole in
the vertical bar until the sliding-rails are quite close home, and
when once through the hole the sliding-rails cannot be moved
until the locking-bar is withdrawn. In some cases two holes or
slots are cut in the vertical bar to enable the points to be bolt-
locked for both directions.

The rocking-bar is designed to prevent the withdrawal of the
locking-bolt before all the vehicles have passed over the points.

This rocking-bar consists of an angle iron or tee-iron bar of
a length equal to the longest wheel-base of the rolling-stock, and
is carried on short pivoted arms working in cast-iron or
wrought-iron brackets secured to the rails as shown in Fig. 481.
The pivoted arms have a movement backward or forward, and
when at either the one or the other extremity, the upper surface

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

3i8 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

of the rocking-bar is sutBciently below the top of the rail to be
well clear of the flange of any passing wheel ; but while chang-
ing from the one to the other position, and when the pivoted
arms are vertical, or at half-stroke, the upper surface of the
rocking-bar is about level with the top of the rail, and right in
the pathway of the wheel-flange. It is evident, therefore} that
when the pivoted arms are set in the forward or backward
position, and one of the wheels of a train or vehicle has passed on
to the rail over the rocking-bar, the latter cannot be changed or
raised and pulled over to the opposite extremity so long as any
one of the wheels of the train or vehicles remain over the
rocking-bar.

As the same ground-crank which pulls over the pivoted
arms from backward to forward also withdraws the locking-bolt
B, the latter is thus held securely in the hole or slot of the trans-
verse rod, E, until all the wheels of the train have passed off the
rocking-bar. The operation of changing the points from one
road to another is very simple. By means of the rodding G,
worked by a lever in the signal-cabin, the locking-bolt B is first
withdrawn from the slot ; the points are then pulled over into the
reverse position by the rodding H, and the locking-bolt B is
again set back into one of the slots by the rodding G. Some-
times, for economy, the points, bolt-lock, and rocking-bar, are all
three worked by one lever in the signal-cabin, and one set of
rodding on the ground, as shown in Fig. 482 ; but the arrange-
ment is neither so perfect nor so secure as that shown in Fig.
480. Where there are two sets of rodding and gearing, the
failure or breaking of either of them prevents the complete com-
bination being made, and indicates at once to the signalman that
something is wrong ; but when there is only one set of rodding
•a breakage may occur without giving any tangible evidence to
the signalman of the defect, and he may proceed to pull over his
signal lever in ignorance that the points have not been properly
made and bolted. To avoid an accident taking place from the
failure of either rodding or gearing, the signal-detector has been
devised, so as to prevent the possibility of pulling over the signal
wire until the points and locking-bar are both in their proper
positions.

The signal-detector is applied in several forms ; the one shown
in Figs. 480 and 483 will explain the principle on which its
efficacy depends. A transverse rod, I, attached to the sliding-rail,

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 319

extends out beyond the rails, and is formed into a flat bar or
plate, J, sliding through the guide-holes K, K in the casting L.
Short upright levers, M and N, work on trunnions fixed in the
casting, and to M and ft are attached the wires leading from the
signal-cabin and continuing on to the signal-posts, as shown in
elevation in Fig. 483. Two slots are cut in the plate J to receive
the curved arms of the levers M and N when they are drawn
downwards to pull off the corresponding signals. Neither of the
levers, M or N, can be drawn over unless there is a slot imme-
diately under the curved arm into which it can enter. When
there is solid plate under a curved arm, the short lever cannot
be pulled over, and the signal therefore remains at danger. The
slots in the plate J are spaced so that one will be brought into
position for one of the curved arms, when the points are close
home for the main line, and the other slot for the other curved
arm, when the points are set for the branch line or siding. The
two slots cannot be under the two curved arms at one and the
same time, as one of the signals corresponds to the main line ahd
the other to the branch line or siding.

In some forms of signal-detector the transverse rod I is
joined on to a vertical bar which slides through guide-holes in a
casting something similar to the arrangement shown in the cast-
ing L. Longitudinal guide-holes, parallel to the line of rails, are
made in the casting a little above the transverse rod-bar, and
through the longitudinal guide-holes slide two vertical bars
which are attached to, and form part of, the wire connections to
the two signals. The wire bars have each a small tongue or
rectangular fin forged on to the under side of the bar, and there
is one corresponding channel cut in the transverse rod-bar.
When the switches are properly closed in one position, the
channel cut of transverse bar will be opposite one of the wire-
bar fins, and will allow one of the signals to be pulled over, but
the other wire bar cannot be moved. The closing of the switches
in the reverse position moves the channel cut so as to allow the
other wire bar to be pulled through, but as there is only one
channel cut in the transverse bar, only one signal can be pulled
over for each position of the switches.

Throw-off or trap paints, are introduced to throw an engine
or train off the rails of a siding on to the ballast, and so avoid a
collision with any other train which may be standing or passing
on the line of rails with which such siding forms a connection.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

^L

e

p..

-±85-

\\ A

-±86-

Llj

U

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 321

Fig. 484 is a diagram sketch of the arrangement, in which the
main-line points are indicated by the letter A, and the trap
points by the letter B ; one series of rodding actuated by one
lever in the signal- cabin works both the main-line points and
the trap points at the same time and by the same movement.
The connections are so made that when the points A are set
for the passage of trains on the main line, the trap points B are
set open to throw off on to the ballast, as shown in Fig. 484 ; and
when the main-line points A are set to allow a train to pass
from the siding on to the main line, the trap points B are closed,
as shown on Fig. 485. A disc or other signal, worked or inter-
locked with the points, is placed near B to notify the engine-
driver when he may pass out of the siding on to the main line ;
but should he from any cause proceed before the points are
properly set and the corresponding signal given, his engine
would run off at the ends of the rails C, C, and be derailed on to
the ballast. The inconvenience caused by such derailment would
be trifling compared with what might result from a collision
with a train standing or passing on the main line. In some
cases the siding is continued onwards for a considerable distance
from the trap-point rails C, C, as indicated by the dotted lines
D D, and terminates with a dead end. When this arrangement
can be adopted, derailment is obviated, and the engine is brought
to a stand by a buffer-stop at the end of siding. On no account
should trap points be placed close to the top edge of a high
embankment, or up to the abutment or wing walls of an under-
line bridge, where an engine running through them accidentally
might fall down a considerable height, and cause serious results.
All sidings joining on to main lines should be trapped as above
described, and when properly signalled and interlocked in the
signal-cabin, the traffic- working can be carried on with increased
facility and security.

Fig. 486 is a sketch of an average sample of an ordinary
single-arm wooden signal-post, with signal-arm, lamp, spectacles,
ladder, and gearing complete for wire connection to signal-cabin.
When the arm stands out in the horizontal position, representing
the danger or stop signal, the red spectacles will be in front of
the lamps, and will show a red light to an approaching train.
When the arm is lowered, as indicated by the dotted lines, the
second spectacle will be in front of the lamps, and will show
either a white or green light (according to the accepted code) as

Y

322 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

an all-right signal for the train to proceed. For many years a
white light was adopted for the all-right signal, but latterly, to
prevent confusion with other white lights about a station, there
has been an increasing disposition to use a green light as an all-
right signal. Several railway companies have already effected
the change, and others have arranged to follow their example.
The counter-weight W keeps the signal-arm to the danger
position, except when it is raised by the pulling over of the
signal-wire from the signal-cabin working over the pulley P.
Should the wire break when being pulled, the weight W falls
down to the stop-plate, and the signal-arm rises to danger. The
signal-posts may be of wood, wrought-iron, steel lattice-wort
or cast-iron.

The arms of distant signals should be cut to a fish-tail shape,
as in Fig. 487, to distinguish them from other signals. Goods-
line signals should have a thin sheet-iron ring, as in Fig. 485.
Sometimes purple glass is used instead of red glass for the spec-
tacles of goods signals. Letters or numbers may be attached
to signal-arms to signify the lines or sidings to which they
correspond. Special signals are sometimes made with the arm
working on a centre pin, as in Fig. 489.

At junctions or places where two or three signals have to be
fixed near together, it is customary to carry them on a bracket
signal-post, as in Figs. 490 and 491. The former represents the
home signals at an ordinary junction, the taller signal being for
the main line and the lower one for the branch line. Fig. 491
shows the home signals at a junction where there is one line
turning out of the main line to the left and another to the right
The taller signal in this case also serves for the main line and
the two lower signals for the branch lines.

In important station-yards, where there are a large number of
lines and sidings running side by side, it is not always convenient
or possible to place the respective signal-posts in suitable positions
between the lines. To overcome the difficulty, the signals are
erected on light overhead lattice girders, as shown in Fig. 492.
In some cases, for want of a better position, or to obtain a more
comprehensive view of the lines and signals, the signal-cabin is
built on lattice girders, as in Fig. 493.

Ground or disc signals are fixed at the ground-level, and are
worked in conjunction with trap points or outlet switches from
sidings. In some cases they are worked direct by a connecting-

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 323

rod from the switches, and serve merely as indicators to show
whether the switches are lying for or against an engine passing
out of the siding. In other cases they are worked independently
from the signal-cabin by a separate lever and wire connection,
the interlocking being so arranged that the lever working the
switches must be pulled over before the lever working the
disc signal can be moved. In one type the disc signal is fixed
to a short vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 494, and by means
of a cranked arm is made to rotate a quarter of a circle, so
as to exhibit either a stop or advance signal according to the
position in which the switches are lying. In another type, the
lamp is fixed, and the red disc, with a red glass in the centre, is
made to assume a horizontal or vertical position by a rod and
crank, as shown in Fig. 495.

A simple arrangement of rodding and rollers for switch con-
nections is shown in Fig. 496, the number of sets of rodding
being determined by the number of connections to be made.
Fig. 497 is a rodding compensator, to compensate or adjust for
the difference in length of the rodding arising from variations
in the temperature. The compensator may be used either
vertically or horizontally, according to space or circumstances.

Strong wrought-iron or steel cranks of different angles will
be required when changing the direction of the rodding, or con-
necting to switches and facing point-locks. They must be firmly
secured to strong timber framework well bedded in the ballast.
For cranks working switches and bolt-locks, it is better to use
extra long timbers under the rails instead of the ordinary sleepers.
Cross-pieces can be bolted to the ends of the. long timbers, and
the cranks placed practically on the same timbers carrying the
permanent way. By this means the rails and cranks can always
be maintained in their proper relative positions as to distance,
line, and level.

Without a large series of diagrams it would be impossible to
adequately describe the extent of signalling and interlocking
required at large terminal stations and important roadside
stations, but one or two simple examples may serve to illustrate
the general principle*

Fig. 498 represents the modern grouping of signals considered
necessary at an ordinary double-line junction, showing all the
signals at their normal or danger position. The numbers
marked on each indicate the numbers of the levers in the inter-

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 325

locking frame of the signal-cabin. Four distinct sets of trains
have to be dealt with at this class of junction, and the inter-
locking must be so arranged that when the signals are lowered
for the advance of any one train, no conflicting signals can be
given to any other train.

Assuming a train approaching from A, which has to continue
on the main line past B on towards C, then the levers in the
signal-cabin must first be pulled over to set the points 9 and
bolt-lock 8 in proper position for the main line ; and this opera-
tion will release the levers which have to be pulled over to
lower the signals 5, 4, and 6, but at the same time will lock,
and prevent the pulling over of the levers or lowering of the
signals 2 and 1 for a train from A to B and D, or of the signals
14 and 15 for a train from D to B and A. The levers will,
however, be free to pull over for setting the points 12 and
lowering the signals 16, 17, and 13 for a train on the main line
from C to B and A.

In a similar manner, assuming a train approaching from D,
which has to continue up to the main line at B and on towards
A, then the lever in the cabin must first be pulled over to set
the trailing points 12 in proper position ; and this operation will
release the levers which have to be pulled over to lower the
signals 14 and 15, but at the same time will lock, and prevent
the pulling over of the levers or lowering of the signals 5 and 4
for a train from A to B and C, or of the signals 16 and 17 for
a train from C to B and A. The levers will, however, be free
to pull over for setting the points 9 and bolt-lock 8 and
lowering the signals 2 and 1 for the passage of a train on to the
branch line from A to B and D.

For a train from C to B and A, the levers 12, 16, 17, and 13
■ would be required, and these would lock levers 14 and 15, and
prevent the approach of any train from D to B, but they would
leave free the levers necessary either for a train from A to B
and C, or for a train from A to B and D, but only one of them
at a time, the setting of the one series locking the other series.

A train from A to B and D would require the proper setting
of the points 9, bolt-lock 8, and signals 2, 1, and 3 ; and these
would lock 5 and 4, but would leave free the levers necessary
either for a train from C to B and A, or for a train from D to
B and A, but only one of them at a time.

The cross-over road from the up to down main line, near the

326 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

letter B on sketch, is only intended for use in case of break-down
or accidents, and the normal position of the points is to lie clear
for the passage of trains on the main lines. To use the cross-
over road, the whole of the signals must first be set to danger
before the points 7 and 7 can be opened to permit the passage
of an engine or train from the one main line to the other.

The starting signals 6 and 3 should be placed sufficiently far
away that the longest passenger or goods train may stand
between them and the clearance points at Q and E. These
starting signals are of great service to train- working at junctions.
Supposing a main-line train from A arriving at B before the
section from B to C was clear, such train could be brought to
a stand at signal 6, and remain there while another train from
A was allowed to pass B, and proceed onwards towards D ; or
a branch-line train from A to D could be brought to a stand
at 3, to allow a main-line train to proceed onwards from A to
B and C. The starting signal 13 should be placed well in
advance of the cross-over road to control anything passing from
one line to the other.

Fig. 499 shows the modern grouping of signals for an ordinary
single-line junction. The arrangement is almost practically the
same as for the double-line junction shown in Fig. 498, there
being the same four distinct sets of trains to be controlled, but
not any cross-over road. The signal-cabin is placed on the
main line, a little in advance of the facing points, and a well-
fenced-in gangway, the same height as the engine footplate, is
carried out the proper distance from the rails, on which the
signalman can stand to hand over or receive the train staff from
the engine-driver when passing.

At stations and places where there are several sidings and
lines connecting with the main lines, at considerable distances
apart, it will be necessary to have two or more signal-cabins
placed in suitable positions, not only for expediting the working
of the constant shunting movements, but also to insure that
there is a signal-cabin within the regulation distance of all
facing points on the main line. So far as the main line is
concerned, the interlocking of these cabins must be connected,
the one with the other, by slotting, or co-acting gearing, in such
manner that the cabin in advance shall always be able to
control the cabin in the rear in the lowering of the main-line
signals for an approaching train. Fig. 376 is a diagram sketch

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 3*7

of a typical double-line roadside station with two signal-cabins.
The north cabin has to work the signals and points in con-
nection with the goods-shed, goods-sidings, and market branch,
and the south cabin, those in connection with the coal and
cattle sidings ; and each of the cabins to work the signals and
points of that portion of the main line adjoining its own cabin.
For siding working, each cabin is quite distinct and independent
of the other, but for main-line working the lowering of the
signals can only be effected by the joint operation or co-acting
of both cabins.

Assuming a train approaching from A to proceed in the
direction towards B, then, before the signalman in the north
cabin can lower the up home-signal C, the signalman in the
south cabin must first pull over his lever and release the slot
which retains the signal C at dang&r, and in doing so the levers
in his own cabin will stand locked, and prevent the lowering of
the signal D, or opening of points E to allow access from the
sidings to up main line. The cross-over road F Q will also be
locked for main line clear. When the slot has been released
from signal C, the signalman in north cabin can lower the up
home signal C, but before he can pull over the lever for this
purpose he must first lock the points H, to prevent access from
the sidings to the up main line, and also the points K L of the
cross-over road, to keep the main line clear. A similar operation
has to be gone through for a train approaching from B to
proceed in the direction towards A, when the signalman in
north cabin must first withdraw the slot from the down home-
signal M before the signalman in the south cabin can lower
that signal A small automatic disc is placed in the cabin to
indicate to the signalman when the slot has been withdrawn by
his colleague in the neighbouring cabin, and for facility of
working, the two cabins are usually placed in communication
with each other by telegraph or telephone.

At some stations similar to the above, where there is a very
frequent train service, with several of the trains running through
without stopping, it is the practice to have a second or lower
arm to the home signals C and M, as shown on the diagram,
these lower arms being only pvUed off for through or non-
stopping trains, as an indication to the engine-driver that the
line is clear in the section ahead.

In addition to the leading signals shown in the sketches,

328 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

there axe shunting signals for the movement and marshalling of
trains — setting-back signals in connection with the making up
of passenger trains ; taking on or off passenger carriages ; or
moving out empty passenger carriages ; and many other special
signals which become necessary for the working of a large and
complicated train service.

The above simple diagrams will explain some of the principal
requirements to be kept in view when working out signalling
arrangements. Where the lines and sidings are very numerous,
as at important junctions and large terminal stations, the signal-
ling becomes very intricate, and may require three or four
cabins, slotted together in such manner that the necessary
co-acting may be insured for the proper controlling of the main-
line signals. Many of these signal-cabins contain a large
number of levers, some of them having as many as a hundred,
and a few of them two hundred and forty levers, or more, all of
them so carefully arranged that no conflicting signal can be
given. Not only has much skill to be exercised in the accurate
adjustment of the interlocking machinery, but much study must
be devoted to determine the exact duty of every lever, for the
locking or releasing of other levers.

Signal-cabins may be built of stone, brick, or wood. They
should be roomy, well ventilated, and have abundance of light
Every signal-cabin should be placed in the position from which
the signalman can obtain the best view of the signals and points
under his charge. The height of the cabin floor will depend
upon any obstacles that may intervene between the cabin and
the signals, such as over-line bridges, station roofs, buildings, or
other obstructions. Sometimes the floor has to be kept as low
as five feet above rail-level, to secure a line of sight under the
over-line bridges; and in others the floor has to be raised
twenty, or even thirty feet above rail-level.

Figs. 500, 501, and 502 show plan, transverse section, and
elevation of a signal-cabin suitable for a small roadside station.
The lower story and chimney-stack are of brick, and the upper
story of wood, with slated roof. There is room for an inter-
locking frame of twenty or twenty-five levers, and space at the
end of the cabin for the block-telegraph instruments, or electric
train-staff instruments. The roof- work is open up to the slate-
boards, to obtain as much air capacity as possible. In the
transverse section a winch for working mechanical gates is

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

330 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

shown at the end of the interlocking frame. There is a liberal
amount of glass, and two or three sliding windows, which the
signalman can open to enable him to speak to the engine-drivers
or others during shunting operations. The lower story of the
cabin can be utilized for trimming lamps and keeping a small
supply of coals and other stores. When working after dark the
lamps in the cabins should be well protected by shades, to
prevent the lights being seen by engine-drivers, and mistaken
for signals.

Interlocking. — There are several systems of interlocking; each
of them varying considerably in the form and mode of appli-
cation, but all of them having the same general object of
securing or releasing the necessary levers for each combination
of signalling movements. A brief description of one of the
systems will explain the order in which the movements have to
be made, and the security which can be obtained by the locking.

Figs. 503, 504, and 505, are sketches illustrating one of the
types of wedge and tappet interlocking. Each lever works an
a fulcrum or pinion as at A, and has a lower arm B for lifting
the rods leading off to points or signals, and an arm C to carry
a counterweight when necessary. Cast-iron braces D are
placed at convenient distances between the series of levers to
carry the top frame E on which the lever floor casing F is bolted.
This casing is continuous from end to end of the locking frame,
with the exception of the narrow openings through which the
levers travel when moving backwards or forwards. The sleeve-
block G, resting in the depressed portions of the arc, retains the
lever in position. When taking hold of the main lever L, the
signalman's hand draws the small side lever M, close to the main
lever, and raises the sleeve-block Q sufficiently high to pass over
the top of arc F, the lever L can then be pulled or pushed
over, and the block G will fall into the depression at the end of
the stroke when the hand is removed. N is a tappet or thin
flat bar attached to the main lever, and which works backwards
or forwards between the wedges in the wedge frame O. The
wedges move horizontally between guide pieces, and work either
singly or are connected by the lower slide bars to other wedges
some distance away on the frame according to the position of
the levers which have to stand or move in unison for the releas-
ing or locking. A strong cover is placed over the wedge frame
to keep out the dirt.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

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332 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Figs. 504 and 505 show plan views of four levers in a signal
cabin taken just above the level of the tappets. In Fig. 504, all
the levers are in their normal or forward position, with the
home and distant signals at danger, and the facing points
leading into loop or siding lying for main line. Previous to the
approach of a train on the main line, the home and distant
signals have to be lowered, and will require the pulling over of
levers 1 and 2 ; but these levers cannot of themselves be moved,
as the wedges P and Q are locked by the straight side of lever
3. The operation would therefore be as follows : — points lever
4 being set in its normal position for the main line would remain
forward, lever 3 working the facing point bolt-lock would be
pulled over, and in doing so would move the wedge R to the
right into the recess of tappet of lever 4, locking that lever, and
presenting the recess of its own tappet ready to receive the
wedge Q. Lever 2 can then be pulled over, and will move the
wedge Q to the right into the recess of tappet of lever 3, and
present its own recess for wedge P. The pulling over of lever 1
completes the series, by moving the wedge P over to the right
into the recess of tappet of lever 2. Fig. 505 shows the positions
of the tappets and wedges with the levers 1, 2, and 3, pulled
over to make the combination described. Upon examination, it
will be seen that levers 2, 3, and 4, are all securely locked, the
points cannot be moved, nor the facing point bolt-lock with-
drawn, nor the home signal changed until the lever 1 is poshed
over again into its normal or danger position. To restore the
levers to their forward position, they must be set back in the
reverse order to which they were pulled over. To simplify
the explanation, only four levers are shown in * the above
sketches, but the principle is constantly extended out to a very
large number of levers, and in many cases necessitates the intro-
duction of several rows of wedges as indicated by the dotted
lines. In some instances a combination is effected by pulling a
certain lever only half over. In some systems the preliminary
action or spring handle locking is adopted, in which the locking
is actuated by the small side lever, similar to the one marked M
on Fig. 503. The advocates of this arrangement claim increased
security and precision in the interlocking, while on the other
hand it is alleged that the mechanism is rendered more com-
plicated without any corresponding advantage.

Detached Lock. — Sometimes there is in the vicinity of &

RAIL WA Y CONSTR UCTION. 333

railway station, a siding which is too far away to be worked
direct from a signal cabin, and not sufficiently used to warrant a
separate cabin. Such sidings can be worked by a small ground
frame opened or locked by a special key attached to the inter-
locking machinery in the adjoining signal cabin on a double-line
railway, or attached to the train staff on a single line.

Fig. 506 shows the arrangement applied to a double line with
the outlying siding turning out of the UP main line, the points
lying in a trailing direction for the running trains. Before the
special and only key can be withdrawn from its seat in the
interlocking frame of the signal cabin, all the up main line
signals must be set to danger, and cannot be moved from danger
until the key is restored to its proper seat again. When the key
is removed from the signal cabin, it can be taken to the ground
frame at A, inserted in the key opening, and by turning it partly
round, will release the bar which locks the levers of the facing
point bolt-lock and the points. When these two levers are free,
the points can be opened, and vehicles moved into or out of the
siding B C, but the special key cannot be withdrawn from the
ground-frame A, until the points and facing point bolt-lock are
put back again into their normal position for main line working.
When the operations at the siding are completed, the special key
can be removed, and taken back to its proper place in the signal-
cabin, and ordinary working be resumed.

Fig. 507 shows the application of the detached locks on a
single line, and is a sketch of a portion of railway on which
there is a small station B, with a goods siding F Q, where the
traffic is too small to require anything more than ground frames
and detached locks. An engine-driver before leaving the station
A, receives a train staff, which gives him possession of the line
as far as C, including of course the intermediate station B, and
this staff he must carry with him and hand over to the signal-
man on his arrival at the end of the section at C. At each of
the points D and E is placed a two lever ground frame, similar
to the one shown in Fig. 506, and attached to the train staff is a
key, which will operate either of the two ground frames, but
only one at a time, as the key must be inserted before the levers
can be moved. When the train is proceeding in the direction
from A to C, it will be more convenient to shunt vehicles into
or out of the siding F G, by means of the points E, but when
proceeding from C to A, the points D will be more convenient.

334 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Whichever of the points be used, they must be set, and bolt
locked for the main line before the train staff and its key can be
withdrawn from the ground frame and restored to the engine-
driver. As the siding is trapped at F and G, it is impossible
for any vehicles to be moved out on to the main line except
through the medium of the train staff and key* The same
arrangement of detached lock is equally available for a single
siding with only one set of points.

Electric Repeater. — It will sometimes occur that on account
of a curve or other obstacle, the arms and back lights of a
distant or other signal cannot be seen from the signal cabin, and
it is necessary to introduce an electric repeater. This little
instrument consists of a miniature semaphore signal fixed in a
metallic box with a glass front, and placed on a stand about a
foot above the floor level immediately in front of the signal lever
for which it is intended to serve as an indicator, like the
signal proper, the normal position of the miniature semaphore is
at danger, but when the signal lever is pulled over in the cabin,
the rod that pulls down the arm on the signal post effects a
contact with an electric circuit which lowers the arm of the
miniature semaphore at the same moment that the signal arm
proper is lowered, and gives visible indication in the cabin that
the signal is working. Fig. 508 is a sketch of one form of
electric repeater.

Detonators or fog signals are largely used in foggy weather
and snowstorms, when the out-door signals cannot be seen from
an approaching train. At such times the atmosphere is so dense,
and the surrounding objects so obscured, that an engine-driver
is totally unable to distinguish the usual landmarks which guide
him on the approach to a station or semaphore, and he might
easily pass by a signal unless he received an audible signal to
indicate the position of the one that is invisible. Detonators
are usually made in the form of a circular tin or metallic case
about two inches in diameter, and three eighths of an inch thick,
with soft metal clips on opposite sides for bending over and
securing to the rails. The case is filled with detonating powder,
which is crushed by the first wheel passing over it, and explodes
with a loud report. It is customary to use these detonators in
pairs placed a short distance apart in case one of them should
fail to explode.

Fog-signalling regulations vary on different railways, bet

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 335

the arrangements are generally carried out somewhat in the
following manner. During the prevalence of a fog or snowstorm,
a fog signal-man is placed near each of the signal-posts to be
protected, and is supplied with a hand signal-lamp, hand-flags,
and a packet of detonators. So long as the arm of the signal-post
at which he is alongside stands at danger, he must keep two de-
tonators on the rail of that line which the signal controls, and also
show a red hand-signal (hand-flag by day, and hand-lamp after
dark) to the approaching train. When the signal arm is lowered
to show that the line is clear for the passage of the train, the fog
signalman must remove the two detonators, and show a green
hand-signal (flag, or lamp) to the approaching train. When an
engine driver hears the report of a detonator crushed by his
engine, it is his duty to shut off steam immediately, and bring
his engine to a stand, after which he must proceed very cautiously,
until he receives further signals by hand or otherwise, or receives
the line-clear signal to continue on his journey. Detonators are
also of great service both in fine or bad weather, in cases of a
wash away, a failure of works, or obstruction on the line, when
a hand-signal may not be seen, but a detonator must be heard.

Mechanical Gates. — Mechanical gates, worked and controlled
from the inside of a signal-cabin, are now very largely adopted
for public road level-crossings instead of ordinary hand-gates,
opened and closed by a gateman walking from side to side of the
line across the rails. Being worked from inside the cabin, they
remove all possibility of the gateman being struck by a passing
train ; they move simultaneously, and can be opened or closed in
very much less time than hand-worked gates, which have to be
moved one by one, and being interlocked with the signals, the
mechanical gates cannot be placed across the lines of rails until
the train-signals in each direction are set at danger. When
set for either train traffic or public road traffic, the gates are held
firmly in position by metal stops, rising out of cast-iron boxes
lying flush with the ground, and worked by a separate lever in
the signal-cabin.

Assuming the gates to be set for train traffic, and it is
desired to open them for the public road traffic, the first opera-
tion will be to pull over the levers, and raise the signals in each
direction to danger, and thus release the stop-lever, which can
then be pulled over, to lower the gate-stops and allow the gate-
winch to be turned, and the gates moved round into correct

336 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

position. The stop-lever must then be set back to raise the
stops and hold the gates secure. The train-signals will be
retained at danger by the interlocking gearing, and "cannot be
lowered until the gates are set back again across the public road,
and the gate-stops raised.

It is frequently urged that the celerity with -which me-
chanical gates can be swung round and closed across the public
road, is in itself a source of danger, and that persons preparing
to cross the line might be struck by a moving gate, unless they
received a distinct warning that such closing was about to take
place. There is no doubt persons have been struck by such
gates when closing across the road, and heavy claims for injuries
have been decreed against railway companies, who were unable
to prove that the man in charge had called out or given warn-
ing before moving the gates. To ensure that due and undeni-
able warning shall always be given, a firm of signal-makers
have patented an appliance by which a powerful electric gong,
fixed on the top of a tall post close to the gates, is sounded
automatically by the gate machinery itself, and before the gates
actually commence to move. As previously described, the pulling
over of the lever to lower the gate-stops is the first operation to
be performed whenever it is necessary to change the position of
the gates, and it is the pulling over of this lever which actuates
the apparatus, by bringing two electric points into contact, and
thus starting the ringing of the gong or alarm. The gong con-
tinues to sound until the gates are moved over, the gate-stops
raised, and the stop-lever put forward again into its normal
position. The arrangement is very simple and very effective,
and being purely automatic must work as regularly as the stop-
lever. The tone and volume of the gong can be varied to suit
circumstances. The public soon become familiar with its sound,
and recognize its meaning.

Figs. 509 and 510 give sketch plan and elevation of a set of
mechanical gates for a public road level crossing on a double
line of railway. The signal-cabin should be placed within a few
yards of the gates, to enable the man in charge to have a good
view of the persons and vehicles passing over the roadway.
The underground gearing for working the gates and stops, must
be protected by iron or wooden casing. The swinging portion
of the wicket gates is closed, and held by a separate lever. The
gates shown on the sketch are for a crossing on the square, but

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

— />o. S09 —

338 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

they can be equally well arranged for an oblique crossing, and of
widths to suit the locality.

Block-Telegraph Signalling. — However complete the outdoor
signals and interlocking at any station, they can only control
the movement of trains within their range, and something more
is requisite to ensure the safe working of the traffic over the
long lengths of line between stations. For some years a time-
interval was allowed for the working of trains following one
another on the up and down lines of a double line railway, no
train being allowed to leave a station sooner than a fixed
number of minutes after a previous train had started in the
same direction. With this system there was always the risk
that the first train might be overtaken [and ran into by the
second, and especially in the night time, or when the atmo-
sphere was at all foggy. The electric telegraph was then called
in to assist in the train-working, and brief telegrams were passed
between the stations announcing the departure and arrival of
trains. The increased security and convenience thus obtained
led to the introduction of special electric telegraph instruments,
devoted to the exclusive duty of train-working. These instru-
ments, termed block telegraph instruments, are now almost
universally used on all double lines of railway, and have largely
contributed to the safe and efficient working of an ever in-
creasing traffic. They are made in various forms, but the
object of each is to ensure that before any train is allowed to
start from, or pass any station, the signalman at that station
shall receive from the signalman in the cabin in advance a dis-
tinct visible signal that the line is clear, and free of any train
up to the cabin in advance ; and also that after the train has
been despatched, the signalman in the rear shall be at once
advised when the train has arrived at the signal-cabin in
advance. Fig. 511 is a sketch of one type of block-telegraph
instrument, in which the leading feature is the miniature
signal-post with its two arms, an arrangement which readily
appeals to the eye of the signalman as being so similar in form
and action to the fixed signals in the station. Each instrument
is supplied with a bell or gong, by which the adjacent signalmen
can communicate with each other, in accordance with a fixed
code of signals which defines the relative numbers of strokes of
the bell or gong, to represent certain regulation calls and
answers. In the signal-cabins of the intermediate stations, two

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 339

block-telegraph instruments are required, one for the section of
the line to the left hand of the cabin, and the other for the
section to the right. At the terminal stations only one instru-
ment is required.

In the instrument shown in Fig. 511, the upper arm of the
miniature signal-post is coloured red, and is moved by electricity
through the medium of the block telegraph instrument in the
signal-cabin in advance ; and until this red signal be lowered to
the line clear position by the signalman in the cabin in advance,
no train must be allowed to start from or pass the cabin in the
rear. The lower signal-arm coloured white is lowered by the
plunger A on its own instrument by the signalman in charge,,
and at the same moment lowers by electricity the upper or red
arm of the block-telegraph instrument in the signal-cabin at the
other end of the section. The lower or white arm* is thus re-
stricted to the signals sent away from the signal -cabin, while the
upper or red arm is restricted to signals received in the signal-
cabin. In the centre there is a round handle B, which rotates a
circular disc inside the instrument, and on this disc are painted
three distinct train inscriptions, only one of which can be seen
at a time through the glazed opening. One inscription has the
words all clear painted in black letters on a white ground;
another has the words train on line painted in white letters
on a red ground ; and the third has the words train off, but
section blocked painted in black letters on a green ground.
The instrument is considered to be in its normal position when
the green inscription is in view, and both the miniature signal-
arms raised to danger.

Fig. 512 represents a portion of double line divided out into
sections, or working blocks, between the stations B, C, and D.
Each station is provided with the necessary block-telegraph
instruments, and the usual distant, home, and starting semaphore
signals.

Fig. 513 is a diagram sketch showing the pair of instruments
as they stand on the instrument-tables in the signal-cabins B and
C, where B 2 and C 1 are the instruments which work together
for the block section BC. Supposing a down train proceeding
from A in the direction of F, and approaching the signal-cabin
of the block station at B, the down starting signal standing at
danger ; then by the code of signals on the. bell or gong the
signalman at cabin B would communicate with the signalman

340 RAILWAY C0NSTRXKTI0N.

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 341

at cabin C, to obtain line clear, so as to allow the approaching
train to proceed on to C. If the previous train in the same
direction had already passed C, and there was not any obstruc-
tion on the line, the signalman at C would give line clear for
the down train, and to do so he would turn his circular disc to
show the white inscription all clear, and then push in the
plunger of his C 1 instrument, lowering the down or white arm,
K, of his own instrument to the position shown by the dotted
lines, which operation would at the same moment lower by
electricity the down or red arm, G, of the instrument B s in
cabin B to the position of the dotted lines. The signalman at
B would then lower his starting signal, to allow the down train
to proceed on towards C, and immediately the train had passed
the starting signal he would, by means of his bell or gong
advise the signalman at C that the train had entered the
section, or block BC, and the signalman at C would at once
turn his circular disc to show the red inscription train on line,
and use his plunger to raise to danger the down or white arm,
K, of his own instrument, and at the same time raise by
electricity the down or red arm, G, to danger in the instrument
B a in cabin B. The section BC would then remain blocked
until the down train had arrived, or passed the station C, when
the signalman there would, by means of his bell or gong advise
the signalman at B that the down train had passed out of the
section, and would turn his circular disc to show the green
inscription train off, but section blocked. Both instruments
would then be in their normal positions, with the arms raised
to danger, and ready for further train operations. In a similar
manner for the UP-line trains on the section or block between
C and B, the signalman in B cabin would turn his circular disc,
and use his plunger to lower the up or white arm, H, in his own
instrument, B 3 , and at the same moment lower by electricity the
up or red arm, I, of the instrument C 1 in cabin C, the other
operation for train on line and train off being carried out for the
up train in the same routine as for the down train. The out-
door fixed signals, or distant home and starting semaphore
signals, have all to be worked to correspond to the block telegraph
signals, and as the latter are always received well in advance
of an approaching train, it follows that when the line is clear,
the outdoor signals can be lowered so as to allow a through or
non-stopping train to pass a block-telegraph station at full speed.

343 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

Where the traffic is moderate, it may be sufficient to have
block -telegraph instruments at each of the stations, but with
a very frequent train service it will be found necessary to
divide the line into shorter sections, and erect signal-cabins and
block-telegraph instruments at intermediate points between
stations.

The code of bell or gong signals is extended to include
various matters in connection with the train-working. For
example, when a down train is passing cabin B at full speed, the
signalman may observe that there is something wrong — a carriage
or waggon on fire, a tail-lamp missing, or other irregularity. It
is too late to stop the train with his own signals, but by means
of his hell or gong he can call upon the signalman in cabin
C to stop and examine the train, and the down distant and
home signals at C can be raised to danger before the train
reaches the cabin at C.

In every block-telegraph signal-cabin there is a train-book
in which the signalman has to write down the time and descrip-
tion of every arriving or passing train, and, as this book lies
before him, he has a complete record of the train-working, with
the particulars of the exact times when the line dear signals
were given, and also when the train arrived or passed his signal-
cabin.

To guard against the possibility of a signalman inadvertently
giving line clear, or allowing another train to pass his cabin
before the previous train had reached the signal-cabin in advance,
some railways have adopted the lock and block system. By
this arrangement the starting signal at any cabin is electrically
and mechanically locked from the cabin in advance, and can
only be released or lowered by the action of the outgoing train
itself when passing over a treadle or other appliance connected
with the rails of the running-line at the signal-cabin in advance.
This method practically gives the train the complete control of
the se his

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RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 343

single line is short, and can be worked by one engine in steam,
or two coupled together, no collision can take place, as the train-
service will be limited to the one train moving backwards and
forwards over the section ; but with a long length of single line,
including a large number of stations, necessitating several trains,
some clear and comprehensive regulations must be introduced.
For a long time the simple train-staff was found to give the
desired security ; there was only one staff for each pair of adjoin-
ing staff-stations, and no train was authorized to run without
the staff, and as the staff could only be on one train at a time,
the precaution against collisions was looked upon as complete.
These staffs, which were generally made of brass, or other metal,
were sufficiently large to be conspicuous when placed in the
stand prepared for them on the engine* They were lettered to
correspond to the stations to which they belonged, and were
made in different patterns to distinguish them for their respec-
tive sections. No train was allowed to start from a station until
the engine-driver received from the station-master the proper
staff to authorize him to proceed to the next station, and on his
arrival there it was the duty of the engine-driver to hand over
the train-staff to the stationmaster of that place, and wait for
another train-staff to authorize him to proceed over the next
section. So long as the train service could be evenly arranged,
and that there was always an up train to take back a train-
staff which has been carried out by a down train, the simple
staff worked most efficiently ; but as the traffic increased, and two
or more trains had to be despatched in the down direction before
one had to run in the up direction, some auxiliary arrangement
had to be introduced. This was effected by issuing train tickets,
kept in a locked-up box, which could only be opened by the
key attached to the train-staff. A properly dated train-ticket
was handed to the engine-driver of the first down train, and,
if necessary, a second train-ticket to the engine-driver of a
second down train, and then the train-staff itself was handed
to the engine-driver of the third down train. There were one
or two serious drawbacks to this train-staff and ticket-work-
ing. As there was only a time interval between the starting
of the trains, the one train might overtake and run into the
other with disastrous results. Again, a second or third train,
which was put down in the schedule, might be withdrawn at
the last moment, and the staff left behind at a station when it

344 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

was required at the opposite end of the section, thus causing
much confusion and delay. The ordinary electric telegraph
could have been utilized to assist in regulating these train
movements, but it was felt that a mere telegraph message was
not sufficient to ensure positive safety, and that something
more tangible was required in the shape of a staff, or token,
without which no train should be allowed to travel on a single
line of railway. To meet this requirement, the electric train-
tablet, and the electric train-staff instruments have been
invented, each of them being so arranged that upon any one
section, or pair of instruments, a tablet or train-staff may be
taken out from the instrument at either end of the section, but
when once taken out, no other tablet or train-staff can be with-
drawn from either instrument until the first has been delivered
and placed again in one or other of the two instruments.

Figs. 514, 515, and 516 are sketches of an electric train-staff
instrument which has been very largely adopted on single lines,
both at home and abroad.

In a similar manner to the block-telegraph instruments for
double line, the electric train-staff instruments have each a bell
or gong by which the adjacent signalmen can communicate
their calls and answers in accordance with a regulation code
In the signal-cabins of the intermediate stations two instruments
are required, one for the staffs belonging to the section to the
left of the cabin, and the other for the staffs of the section to
the right At a terminal station only one instrument is required.

The head of the instrument contains the electrical and
mechanical locking apparatus which controls the withdrawal of
a train-staff, or is acted upon by its insertion. The circular
name-plates and pointers, together with the galvanometer in the
centre, serve as indicators to guide the signalmen in carrying
out the various operations. The staffs usually consist of thin
steel tubes, solid at the ends, with metal rings fixed upon them,
as shown in the sketch, the number and position of the rings
varying according to the section or pair of staff stations to which
they belong ; this difference in the rings effectually preventing
the possibility of one set of staffs being used or inserted in
either of the instruments of the adjoining sections. The staffs
rest normally in the long vertical slot A, with the rings fitting
in vertical grooves, which prevent the removal of any staff
except by passing it along the curved slot BC, and out by the

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 345

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346 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

opening D, of large diameter. The electrical and mechanical
locking apparatus is placed at the curved slot, and until the
locking-bolt, which stands across the passage of the curved slot,
be lifted by the joint operations of the signalmen and their
instruments at both ends of the section, no staff can be with-
drawn. When the instruments are standing in their normal
position of " staffs in/' the signalmen can arrange between them
to withdraw a staff — say either from the north cabin instru-
ment or from the south cabin instrument of the section, bat
only from one of them ; and the act of taking out that staff
automatically locks both instruments, and prevents the possi-
bility of taking out any other staff from either instrument until
the staff already removed is restored and inserted in one or
other of the instruments. From the above description it will
be seen that the electric train-staff instrument provides for the
safe working of two or more trains proceeding, one at a time,
in the same direction over a section of single line, each one being
supplied with a train-staff, which must be handed over at the
end of a section before another staff can be issued for a following
train* Should the train-staffs accumulate in one instrument,
in consequence of more trains running in one direction than
another, a re-distribution of staffs is effected by the authorized
persons according to fixed regulations.

In the diagram sketch, Fig. 517, a piece of single line is
shown divided into sections or blocks, with loops or passing-
places at the stations. At the station E a train-staff taken out
of the instrument F serves for the section up to the instrument
L at the station H ; and on the train-staff is a key which will
open the detached locks on the points of the small intermediate
station, G, as described in Fig. 507, in connection with the
working of detached locks. At the station H the engine-driver
receives another staff from the instrument M, which takes him
to the instrument N at station K, and in like manner on this
staff is a key which will open the detached lock on the colliery
siding points at I. At stations H and K are shown loops, or
short pieces of double line, with platform to enable an UP train
to cross or pass a down train. The distance apart of the electric
train-staff stations will depend greatly upon the number of the
trains, and for a frequent train-service it may be necessary to
have the instruments at every station, whether large or smalL
The electric train-staff is of great advantage in the working of

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 347

ballast or construction trains, as a staff may be taken out of the
instrument F at station E, which will give possession of the
section as far as station H, and when the ballasting operations —
which may be very near to E — are completed, the train can
return to E, and deliver the staff again to the instrument F,
instead of having to run the entire distance to station H.
Although carrying a train-staff, the engine-driver must approach
stations cautiously, and obey the fixed signals in the usual
manner.

CHAPTER Vm.

Bail ways of different ranks — Progressive improvements — Growing tendency f«
increased speeds, with corresponding increase in weight of permanent way and
rolling-stock — Electricity as a motive-power. *

Looking at railways in their present stage of development, they
appear to be divided into three ranks, each one distinct from
the other as regards its importance, capability, and prospects.

In the first rank are the great trunk lines, which, at home
or abroad, pass through thickly populated districts, rich in
manufactures, minerals, or shipping industries, with their enor-
mous movement of materials and people, and consequently
requiring the most ample works, equipment, and appliances
for security.

In the second rank may be classed those railways which run
through ranges of country where the population is moderate,
or where the manufacturing industries are few in number and
of minor importance. Although of the utmost value to the
community of the long series of small towns and agricultural
districts through which they pass, and forming the only great
commercial highway, or connecting link, with some distant
seaport, or leading business centre, the traffic returns upon such
lines are too small to permit of the introduction of the more
complete appliances and luxuries to be met with on the richer
railways. In newly opened-out countries, and in distant colonies,
such lines have often to struggle on for years against financial
returns so small as to barely enable them to maintain a condition
of efficiency ; but where there are natural advantages in soil and
climate, combined with a judicious development of all the
available resources, the result will be the raising of the standard
of the railway itself, and the enrichment of the entire district
through which it passes. When laying out lines of this descrip-
tion, it may be necessary to curtail as much as possible the
expenditure on works and equipment, but there should be no
hesitation in obtaining liberal quantities of land for future

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 349

enlargement of stations, or for constructing additional stations
on promising sites. The value of the land may be small in the
outset, but will be enhanced enormously as the benefits of
the undertaking become appreciated.

In the third rank may be grouped those branch lines which,
starting from a main passenger or goods line, are laid down to
some outlying town, seaport, or mining centre, which, although
small, is considered of sufficient importance to be brought into
railway communication. In general, these lines are laid to the
same gauge as the line with which they connect, and the transfer
of merchandise waggons is readily effected at the point of
junction. Others, from motives of economy, have been laid
down to a narrow gauge, involving the transhipment of all
goods and cattle at the station where the break of gauge takes
place. Most of these branch lines are laid out through the open
country, like an ordinary standard railway, but with a minimum
of works and appliances. Others are laid down partly on level
public roads, and partly through the fields, and are in con-
sequence subject to a statutory low rate of speed when travelling
over those portions on the public roads.

In many cases the construction of second and third rank
railways, both at home and abroad, has been largely assisted by
state or provincial aid. Such assistance must always be valuable
to poor or undeveloped districts, but judgment should be exercised
so as not to encourage the introduction of any scheme which
would interfere or become competitive with any existing under-
taking constructed by public enterprise. So long as capitalists
invest their money more from commercial motives than from
feelings of philanthropy, it would, to say the least, be unjust and
impolitic for any country to adopt a course of competition by
national funds, and so check the flow of public money into public
undertakings. Ordinary public commercial competition may be
business, as each party can value and compare their own prospects;
but the competition of a scheme enjoying national aid and free
money grants is very apt to become one-sided.

There is every indication that even what may be termed a
fourth-rank type of railway is destined to play a very important
part in the industrial enterprises of many countries, and that in the
form of little lines, made to any convenient gauge, and laid either
along public roads or open country, or both, the produce from
isolated manufactories, forests, quarries, and large farms will be

35o RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

conveyed to the nearest railway stations with greater facility and
at much less expense than by carting along the public highway.
Such little lines are available in places where the most sanguine
promoter would hesitate to suggest an ordinary railway, and may
be found to supply what is felt to be the missing link in the
economical transport of a long list of materials of everyday use.
As they would be almost exclusively intended for merchandise
purposes, the statutory requirements would be on the most
moderate scale, and as they would be generally constructed at
the cost of the parties who had to operate them, the outlay
would be restricted to the actual works necessary for con-
venience and efficiency. Similar little lines have been in use for
many years in the busy yards of large ironworks, shipbuilders,
and many other localities, where weighty masses of materials
have to be moved from place to place in the course of manu-
facture, and it would be merely carrying out the same idea to a
more extended range. The principal inducement for their intro-
duction is the great advantage, both in convenience and cost,
that is obtained by hauling a ton of materials over a pair of rails
as compared with carting the same weight along an ordinary
road ; and as the fact becomes more and more proved by expe-
rience, these little fourth-rank lines will become more general.
Numbers of them are in use at the present time, and some of
them, even of only 2-f eet gauge, are doing good service, the little
trucks conveying manufactured goods to the nearest railway
station and returning loaded with coals and other materials. By
making suitable arrangements for passing places and junctions,
the system could be carried out to considerable distances in
thinly populated districts, and be made available by means of
local sidings, to several places along the route. With a narrow-
gauge type there would, of course, always be the time and expense
of transhipment to or from the ordinary railway trucks in the
same way as with the road carts, but the time and expense may
be lessened by so constructing the little narrow-gauge trucks
that the bodies may be readily lifted off the frames and wheels,
and be placed like packing-cases in the railway waggons.

It is natural to look to the railways of the first rank for the
latest advances in construction, appliances, and equipment, and
it is generally there they are found. Great trunk lines, crowded
with traffic of all kinds, have not only the opportunity and
means, but all the strong inducements to try or adopt any

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 351

arrangement which promises greater facilities for dealing with
the ever-increasing demands made on their carrying powers.

Passenger and goods traffic are so dissimilar in their require-
ments that when both of them are steadily increasing it becomes
difficult, if not impossible, to work the two classes over an
ordinary double line. In some cases much assistance has been
obtained by shortening the lengths of the working sections and
introducing intermediate electric telegraph block stations between
the ordinary stations. Long refuge-sidings have also been intro-
duced at many of the signal-cabins or stations, into which goods
trains can be shunted out of the way to allow fast passenger
trains to pass through without stopping. Up to a certain extent
this arrangement works fairly well, but where there is a very
frequent service of fast and slow passenger trains, combined with
a heavy and constant service of goods and mineral trains, the
two lines of way are practically incapable of accommodating
such a number of mixed trains without causing serious detentions.
The goods trains must shunt out of the way some time before a
passenger train is due, and this frequent shunting into sidings
results in hours of delay in the transit of the goods and cattle
traffic ; and when one of such trains is allowed to proceed again
on its way up to another station, dove-tailed as it may be between
two fast passenger trains, there is always the tendency to run at
a much higher rate of speed than is prudent for the class of
rolling-stock of which the goods train is composed. To over-
come this difficulty some railways have introduced additional UP
and down lines on the busiest part of their system, making four
lines of way in all, two of these being reserved for the fast
passenger and through trains, and the other two for slow trains,
goods, and mineral trains. This arrangement of the four lines
has afforded great relief to the traffic of all kinds, and has enabled
the service to be worked with much greater facility and punctu-
ality. The goods trains being restricted to their own separate
lines, can proceed regularly in their order, at their uniform
working speed, without having to resort to the spasmodic fast
running too often expected from them when passing over some
parts of an ordinary double line. Doubtless this four-line system,
or rather the principle of laying down two additional lines of
way, will go on extending, and will be accelerated in its accom-
plishment by the growing demand for still higher speed of our
fast passenger trains, and still longer distances to be traversed

352 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

without stopping. High-speed long-distance through trains can
only perform their journeys with punctuality, when the route is
kept clear of all other trains or obstructions which might inter-
fere with their free running. Any check or stoppage in their
course would cause loss of time and prestige.

It is to be regretted that in so many of the cases where two
additional lines of way have been laid down, more space was not
left between the sets of rails for the fast traffic and those for the
slow. In many instances the dividing space is not more than 7
or 8 feet. It would have been better and safer if it could have
been made 20 feet. An ordinary goods train is made up of
several kinds of trucks, some empty, some loaded, many of them
unequally loaded, all of them subject to heavy work and rough
handling, and more likely to give trouble than the higher class
vehicle, the passenger carriage. The breaking down or derail-
ment of one or two goods trucks on a line of rails close alongside
the fast passenger rails, would in all probability so foul and
obstruct the passenger line as to cause a very serious accident
to an express train which could not be stopped in time. The
greater width would not only provide more clearance in case of
breakdowns, but would afford increased safety to the platelayers
and other workmen engaged on the line. The permanent-way
men have to be very watchful to keep out of danger on an
ordinary busy double line, but they must be very much more on
the alert where there are four lines of way close together side
by side.

In the neighbourhood of large cities and important manu-
facturing centres, railways have created a distinct traffic for
themselves by providing means for a large portion of the popu-
lation to reside in convenient suburbs. Local trains running at
suitable business hours have induced people of all classes to
select homes a few miles away from town, and the gradual
growth of this suburban traffic has produced its own advantages
and requirements. At the large terminal stations platform after
platform has been added to accommodate the increased number
of trains which arrive in the busy parts of the morning or depart
in the evening. Every facility has to be provided to permit of
the expeditious ingress and egress of the large crowds forming the
respective trains — ample platforms, over-line foot-bridges, sub-
ways, convenient booking-offices, waiting-rooms, and left-luggage
rooms.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. # 353

The enormous train service on some of these first-rank lines
demands the highest efficiency in the signalling and interlocking
arrangements, and the use of any devices which will ensure in-
creased facility and safety in the working of the traffic With
a crowd of trains passing a signal-cabin in both directions, and
often over four lines of way, it is quite possible for a signalman
to make a mistake which cannot be rectified in time to prevent
an accident To obtain increased security many railways have
adopted the lock and block system previously described, or some
adaptation of the same principle, and this method of working
will go on extending as the traffic increases. These additional
appliances entail additional care and inspection, for although
automatical machinery may be exempt from the human frailty
of preoccupation of mind or forgetfulness, it is somewhat delicate
in its organization, and requires constant supervision to maintain
its efficiency.

On many of the large lines, much has been done to give
improved carriage accommodation. Carriages have been made
longer, easier on the road, loftier, better furnished, and better
lighted ; but there is still a very great deficiency in those con-
veniences so essentially necessary, especially on trains running
long distances without stopping. Drawing-room cars and
dining-room cars are no doubt attractive, and may contribute
considerably to the popularity of certain routes; but it is
questionable whether many of the lines at home and abroad
which have adopted such luxuries, have not in doing so com-
menced at the wrong end, and whether it would not have been
more to the public satisfaction to have begun by first providing
those conveniences which are found in every carriage on every
line in the United States. It is satisfactory to find that there
is a steadily growing tendency to so construct passenger
carriages that their occupants may, by passages or corridors,
communicate with all parts of the same carriage or with the
adjoining carriages ; and there is every reason to assume that the
carriage of the future, either by legislation or consent, will
combine both the items of conveniences and intercommunica-
tion, and will confer not only greater comfort to the passengers,
but also increased protection against those outrages which, un-
fortunately, too frequently occur under the system of isolated
compartments.

It will be instructive to watch the results of the passenger

2 A

354 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

receipts on those lines where only first and third-class carriages
are used. The elimination of the second class may at first sight
appear an innovation; but if there is not any pecuniary loss
sustained, there must be a gain in the reduction of unoccupied
seats to be hauled. It is customary to provide in every train a
liberal number of spare seats of each class to meet contingencies;
and the omission of one class may mean the saving of two or
three carriages — a very important item in locomotive power.

On important through lines high-speed running has become*
leading feature, and compels a very efficient standard of perfection
in works and rolling-stock to effect its attainment. There is do
indication of remaining contented with what has been already
accomplished ; on the contrary, the spirit of restlessness is always
urging to do something more. The travelling public speak as
calmly now of a speed of seventy miles an hour as they did of
thirty-five a few years ago; they thoroughly recognize the
value of railways, and they merely desire to travel still faster.
The incentives of emulation and competition are ever present to
encourage further and further reduction of the running time,
and the railway that offers a special fast through service for
some of its passenger and mail trains, reasonably expects its
popularity and patronage to be in the ascendant. Much has
been done in permanent way and equipment to make the present
high speeds possible, but more will be required if the speeds are
to go on increasing. The passenger carriages for such work
must be very substantial, and naturally heavy. The locomotives
to haul a long train must have increased power and weight, and
will necessitate stronger rails to carry the greater rolling loads.
With the present system of motive-power, the heaviest item is
the locomotive, and its weight must always determine and
regulate the character of the works and permanent way. Bails
weighing 90 pounds per yard are becoming common, and there is
clear indication that before very long sections weighing from
100 to 120 pounds, or more, per yard will be brought into use on
many lines. There will be no difficulty in making a permanent
way strong enough for rolling loads very far in excess of any-
thing in the present practice ; but it will be costly, and the extn
expense per mile, extended over a few hundred miles, will
represent a sum so large as to raise the question in many cases
whether the probable advantages and additional remuneration
to be obtained will warrant the outlay.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 355

To some extent the increased speed may be attained by
dividing the present long trains into two shorter trains, with a
fair interval of time between them. There are many splendid
locomotives now running, which on a fairly level line can reach
a speed of considerably over seventy miles an hoar with a short
train, but would be quite incapable of doing so with a long train.
At the same time it is possible that if passengers increase in the
same proportion as the inducements provided, the short train
might not be sufficient for the numbers presented, and there
would be no other alternative but to resort to still greater rolling
loads and stronger hauling power.

Perhaps electricity, which has already achieved so many
marvels, is destined to take a still more prominent, part as a
motive-power in the working of ordinary railways, and may
help out of the difficulty by inaugurating still higher speeds
without the necessity of incurring stronger works or heavier
permanent way. In addition to its success in the telegraph,
in the telephone, and in its brilliant light, electricity is every
day coming more and more to the front as a motive-power. At
present many tramways and short lines, some of them in tunnel,
some above ground, and many of them with very steep gradients,
are successfully worked by electricity ; but these, being of modern
construction, were specially designed and equipped for that
method of working, and none of them as yet resort to high
speeds. Such rapid strides have, however, been already made in
the progress of this system of haulage, as to promise that both
increased power and speed will be forthcoming when the demand
for them is made manifest. Various modes of application are
being tried : overhead wires, underground wires, conductors on
the level with the rails, storage batteries or accumulators, and
self-contained electric motors, each and all of them being care-
fully tested to ascertain the comparative cost and efficiency.
Much will depend upon the localities and advantages to be
obtained for the respective generating stations. In places where
a large, constant, and unutilized water supply is available, a
great saving may be effected in the most expensive item of
electric working, but in the greater number of cases steam-power
will have to be adopted for driving the generating machinery.
The main question will be whether electricity in its most
approved form of application can haul a ton of paying load for
one mile at a less average cost, and at as great or greater speed

356 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

than the ordinary locomotive. Until there is very clear evidence
that electricity is cheaper, there will not be any great induce-
ment for its general use as a motive-power on ordinary railways.
Experiments have been made on some existing railways to
ascertain how far this new motive-power can be made service-
able under special circumstances. In one case, a powerful
electric motor-car has been introduced for working frequent and
heavy trains through a long tunnel, where the atmosphere with
ordinary steam locomotives became foul almost to suffocation,
and the result has shown that the traffic can be hauled efficiently
by electricity, and the air in the tunnel maintained pure and
clear. In this instance, the question of cost was of secondary
importance, the primary object being to avoid the asphyxiating
gases emitted from the ordinary locomotives.

In other cases, specially designed electric motor-cars hare
been constructed with a view to obtain a higher speed for pas-
senger trains than is at present attained with the locomotives,
and the trials made have proved that these cars could reach a
high speed, but so far only with limited loads. Experiments are
still going on with larger and improved machines, from which it
is expected to obtain both high speed and much increased haul-
ing power.

It is more than probable that amongst the earliest practical
applications of electric motive-power on existing railways will
be its introduction as an auxiliary on the steep gradients of some
of the mountain railways abroad. In many of these regions
there are millions of gallons of water running to waste down
the ravines, a portion of which could be utilized in working
powerful generating plant, to drive strong electric motor-cars for
assisting the ordinary locomotives up the steep inclines. Is
such localities, with free water-power, the cost of the electricity
would be at a minimum, while the cost of the ordinary locomo-
tive would be at a maximum.

In whatever form the electric motor-car may be designed, we
are brought face to face with the old axiom, that there must be
a certain amount of weight to obtain a certain amount zi
adhesion ; but there will be one important point in favour of th-
motor-car, that whereas in the ordinary locomotive the wei*rb
for traction can only be distributed over a few working wheels
the electric arrangement may distribute it over a much greater
number, and so diminish the insistent weight of each wheel up-;::

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. i$7

the rails. There would also be the saving of the dead weight of
the tender, the fuel, water, and other minor accessories, as well
as the advantage that the active power would be applied in a
rotary form instead of reciprocating.

There are important interests at stake in the perfecting of
this new system of haulage, and day by day new developments
are being made to add to its efficiency and reduce its cost.
Existing railways will, however, naturally require some very
convincing proof of the all-round superiority of electricity
before adopting that power generally in place of their present
locomotives. The latter, with their corresponding workshops
and appliances, represent so large an amount of invested capital,
as to demand most thorough trials and investigation of the new
power before they are superseded ; nevertheless, if further ex-
perience proves that electrical power is better and cheaper than
the ordinary steam locomotives, then the change will un-
doubtedly be made.

Under whatever system of haulage the acceleration of trains
be obtained, the increased speed will call for increased precau-
tions in the selection and proving of the materials to be used in
such service. Bails must be made more uniform in quality, and
must be free from the imputation of fracture under regular wear.
Notwithstanding the great improvements made in the prepara-
tion of the steel, and in the rolling, there are still far too many
steel rails which break under traffic to allow rail-makers to rest
satisfied with their work. Something is still wanting in the
manufacture to effectually remove this disposition to fracture.
The safe rail, the rail of the future, must be one that may bend
and may wear, but will never break under ordinary use in the
road. Axles must be stronger and tougher, as they will have to
bear greater torsional strains than are now imposed upon them ;
and the wheels, of whatever type they are made, must be in-
capable of collapsing or falling to pieces upon the sudden and
severe application of the brake-blocks. A train, rushing along
at a speed of 70 or 80 miles an hour, may on an emergency
have to be brought to a stand in the shortest distance possible,
and the failure of either axles or wheels in the endeavour to
avert one form of accident would inevitably initiate another.

To permit of unchecked high-speed running, many sharp
curves will have to be flattened, bridges will have to be built at
busy level crossings ; and points, crossings, and junctions on the

358 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION.

main lines will have to be reduced to the smallest possible
number.

It would be difficult to form an opinion as to how far pas-
senger traffic will go on expanding, but if it continues to increase
at the same rate as at present, some railways may find it ex-
pedient, and even absolutely necessary, to construct new lines
altogether separate and apart from the existing routes, and far
the sole use of their fast through traffic. As roadside or inter-
mediate traffic would not form any part of the scheme, sod
lines could be laid out so as to keep away from the populous
districts, where property would be costly, and pass instead
through those parts of the open country where the most direct
course and easiest gradients could be obtained. Stations would
only be required at the very large and important places, and at
long distances from each other. Lines of this description,
reserved for through traffic only, taken alone, might not pay, but
taken in conjunction with the existing lines, of which they
would form a part, they might prove to be the best solution of
the problem of dealing with a crowded train service, the re-
munerative earnings of which, placed together, might yield a
rich return over the entire system. A project for a separate
through line might at first appear a little startling, but we have
well-known precedents in the vast expenditure already incurred
in the constructing of enormous viaducts and connecting lines
to avoid long detours on certain through routes. The widening
out of an ordinary double line into a four-line road was at first
considered as a rather venturesome departure ; and it must
always be costly because, in addition to the earthworks and
permanent way, there is the doubling of all the over and under
bridges and waterways, besides the great and expensive altera-
tions at stations. Practically it is almost like making a second
railway, and yet the constant extension of the principle is an
admission that the working results have proved satisfactory, in
spite of the large outlay. A little later the question will force
itself more prominently into notice, whether the four-line track
or the separate fast through traffic lines, will best answer the
purpose. The former possesses certain advantages, but the latter
would give more freedom for high-speed running.

Engineers have brought railways to their present stage of
perfection, and the public will expect them to devise and earn-
out still further improvements as the march of development

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 359

moves onward. It is a simple matter to arrange the traffic on a
railway when all the works and appliances are appropriate for
the service to be performed ; but the advances which are made
follow one another so rapidly as to necessitate constant study
and organization to effect the structural alterations and additions
requisite to maintain an up-to-date standard of efficiency. The
traffic manager on a railway receives his instructions from the
directors or controllers of the company as to the working out of
the train service, rates, charges, and other items of his depart-
ment, but the engineer has to stand alone, and his technical
knowledge and professional skill must enable him not only to
design and construct works suitable in character, extent, and
strength to the duty for which they are intended, but also to
decide when structures are no longer capable of properly sustain-
ing the increasing loads brought upon them, and must be taken
down and replaced with others of a stronger description. For
this reason the engineer must carefully consider every circum-
stance and local feature which may influence the design to be
prepared ; he must thoroughly investigate the nature of the
ground for foundations, as the description when ascertained will
frequently determine the class of work to be erected, whether in
viaducts, bridges, or buildings ; and in his selection of materials
and calculations for strength, he must allow ample margin to
meet further increased weights, as well as for natural deterio-
ration.

He should, indeed, go a little further, and as his perceptive
ability and training will always enable him the more readily to
foreshadow the direction in which improvements or changes are
tending, he should study out and be prepared with his schemes
to meet the new departures as the requirements gradually arise.

Strength and efficiency are the leading points which must be
always kept in view, and the engineer must never forget that
he is solely responsible for the safety of the line and works, and
of the public passing over the same.

t
1 1

-A"

INDEX

Accommodation wo* •». 12

Air-lock, 119

Air-pump, 120

Allowances for inkage on embankments,

70
Alteration of gradie ti, 12

of roads, 6, 10

American hand-brak , 46
Analysis of step 1 ▼* 198
Apptop- v tions, 249

of con

rm,336

Jib era'
Jii»"

129
Beater, 2*
Bench mai

Bissell track,
Block crossing,
telegraph »

various materials,

steel, 235
lling, 18, 888

Board of Trade re» irements, 18
Bog-cutting, 65
Bogie carriage, 54

engine, 56, 806

Booking-hall, 249, 260
Book of reference, 8
Borings for foundations, 129

for tunnel work, 164

Borrowed earthwork, 61
Bottom-pitching, 225
Bracket signals, 20, 822
Brake-power on gradients, 45

Brakes for goods waggons, 46
Brick-well foundations, 123
Bridges, 79

orer public roads, 10

Broken stone ballast, 225
Buffer-stops, 282
Bull-head rail, 191

Gab-rank, 251

Caisson foundations, 121

Cant of rail, 230

Carriage accommodation, 853

bogie, 54

dock, 282

traverser, 292

Cast-iron column piers, 97

in bridges, 27

saddles, 224

sleepers, 214

tram-plates, 184

— tube tunnels, 179

water-tanks, 299

Catch-siding, 26

Centre line of railway, 82

Chairs, 206

Channelling ballast, 231

Check-rails on sharp curves, 29, 51

Cinder ballast, 227

Circular running-shed, 289

Clay puddle, 127

Clocks at stations, 26

Coal-drops, 282

Coffer-dams, 127

Comparison of bull-head and flange rails,

199
Compound rails, 190
Concrete foundations, 114
Continuous brakes, 80

362

INDEX.

Cost of permanent way, 241, 242
Covered-way tunnels, 178
Grab bolts, 223
Cranes, 280, 294
Creosoted sleepers, 211
Cross-oyer road, 283
Crossings made of rails, 237
Cross-sections, 33
Culverts and drains, 74
Curve alterations, 12
Corves, 49

Catting rails on carves, 229
Cylinder foundations, 116

D

Datum line, 8

Deck or floor of girder bridges, 183

Deposited plans, 4, 6

Depths of cuttings, 10

Derrick crane, 299

Detached lock, 332

Detonator or fog signals, 334

Detours on mountain-sides, 3

Deviation, limits of, 6

of centre line, 12

of levels, 12

Diagram sketches of bridges, 149
Diamond crossing, 237
Disc or ground signals, 322

wheels, 48

Distant signal, 18, 314, 322
Diversion of roads, etc., 6
Dobbin-cart, 67
Dock platforms, 251
Double-lino junotion, 231

slip points, 233

Dry stone backing, 162

E

Earthworks, 60
Edge rails, 185
Electric motive-power, 355

repeater, 22, 334

— train-staff instrument, 344
Embankment on bog, 71
Engine bogie, 53, 56, 304

triangle, 290

Engine turntables, 27, 289
Enlargements on parliamentary plans,
16

Entrances to tunnels, 176
Estimate, 14
Expansion of rails, 228
Extract from Government Standing
Orders and Regulations, 6

Facing-bolt lock, 315

points, 20

■, distance, 20

point looks, 22

Fang clips, 224
Fastenings, 218
Fences enclosing line, 14, 73

on bridges, 10

— on road approaches, 10
Fish bolts, 203, 220

plates, 188, 203

plate liners, 206

Flag signals, 318

Flag-top culverts, 76

Flange rail, 191

Floor or deck of girder bridges, 133

Floors for goods-sheds, 280

Flying junction, 231

Fog or detonator signals, 334

Footbridges, 26, 147, 149

Footings of foundations, 111

Foundations, 111

Four-line system, 351

G

Gantry crane, 294

Gate-alarm, 336

Gates for level crossings, 74

Gauge of railways, 87, 38

Girder bridges, 110

Glazed roofs over platforms, 272

Goliath crane, 297

Goods-sheds, 273

Government grants to railways, 349

Standing Orders, 4, 6

Gradient alterations, 12
Gradients, 42

influencing loads, 43

in tunnels, 166

Gravel ballast, 225
— foundations, 113
Guard-rails, 51
Guide-piles, 127

INDEX.

363

H

Half-round sleepers, 211
Hand-brakes on trucks, 46
Headings in tunnels, 169
Headway and span of public -road

bridges, 10
Height of platforms, 24
Heights of embankments, 10
High-level viaduct, 81, 83
High-speed running, 854
Home signals, 18, 314
Houses of labouring classes, 10

Inclination of ramps, 26
Inside keys for ohairs, 207
Inspection of new line, 18

of tunnel work, 176

Interlocking of signals, 22, 314, 330
Iron-tube tunnels, 179
Island-platform station, 258

Jack-arches of brickwork, 145

of concrete, 139

Jib crane, 296
Jim Crow, 239
Junction signals, 20, 323
with existing line, 6

K

Keys for ohairs, 207
Kinsua Viaduct, 97

Lavatories and conveniences, 260

Laying permanent way, 225

Level crossings, 10

Life of steel rails, 193

Lift-bridge, 87

Light railways standard gauge, 41

Limits of deviation, 6, 16

Loa Viaduct, 102

Loads of locomotive engines, 44

Location of railway, 1

Look and block signals, 342, 353

Longitudinal sleepers, 210

Low viaduct arching, 129
Low-level viaduct, 81, 83

M

Hade ground, 111
Marking steel rails, 195
Mechanical drills, 172

gates, 835

Mile-posts, 80

N

Names of stations, 24
Narrow-gauge railways, 40
Natural features of country, 1

ground, 111

Navigable rivers, 81

O

Occupation bridges, 110
Ordinary crossing, 235
Ordnance maps, 3
Outside guard-rails, 53

keys for chairs, 207

Over-line arch bridges, 103

Parapets on viaducts, 28

Parliamentary estimate, 14

plan and section, 6, 8

Pedestal water-tanks, 302

Piers of oast iron, 97

of masonry, 95

of timber, 102

of wrought-iron and steel, 97

Pile foundations, 114

Plate-iron troughing, 143

Platform roofs, 264

Platforms (requirements of), 24

Plenum system of sinking, 119

Pneumatio process of sinking, 129

Points, or switches, 235

Portage viaduct, 102

Power to purchase land, 6

Preservation of timber, 211

Private-road bridges, 110

Provincial grants to railways, 349

Public-road bridges, 10, 103

level crossing, 8

3^4

INDEX.

R

Badial axle-boxes, 58

Bail*, 182

Railway bill*, 16

— Clauses Act, 6

fences, 14

slope, 61, 66, 72

Railways of different ranks, 348

Ramps to platforms, 24

Recommendations as to working of rail-
ways, 30

Rectangular running-sheds, 289

Reduced speed on curves, 50

Refuge sidings, 31, 351

Relative costs of narrow-gauge and light
railways, 41

Renewal of under-line bridges, 151

Repeater signal, 22, 334

Requirements of Board of Trade, 18

Retaining walls, 159

Reverse curves, 51

Roadside station, 253

Rook foundations, 113

RooMng-bar, 316

Roof-principals, 264

Roofs over roadside platforms, 272

Rope-haulage, 49

Route of railway, 1

Royal assent, 16

Runaway points, 233

S

Safety-points, 24, 319

Sandy foundations, 113

Scales for Parliamentary plans, 6, 16

Scissors cross-over, 233

Screw piles, 114

Semaphore signals, 313

Semi-circular running-sheds, 289

Separate lines for through traffic, 358

Service roads, 69

Shafts in tunnels, 167

Sheeting-piles, 127

Side-cutting, 61

Side recesses in tunnels, 176

Sidings, 24

Signal-cabins, 328

Signal-detector, 315, 318

Signals, 313

at junctions, 20, 323

Signals (requirements of), 20

Six-wheeled carriage, 54

Sleepers, 209

Slip-points, 233

Slope of cutting, 61

— of embankment, 66

Slotted signals, 326

Snake-heads, 184

Soft deep bog, 70

Soiling earthwork, 66

Sorting-sidings, 285

Span and headway of P. R. bridges, 10

Spans of large railway bridges, 158

Spikes, 222

Spirals, 35

Spoil-bank, 60

Sprags,46

Square crossing, 233

Standing orders, 4, 6

Starting-signal, 18, 314

Station buildings, 260

roofs, 264

Stations, 248

near viaducts, 24

on gradients, 26

Steel and wroaght-iron sleepers, 217

rails, 190

Steps for side-lying ground, 70

of staircases, 26

Stone sleepers, 210
Strain on steel, 27

on wrought-iron, 27

Suburban traffic, 352
Subways, 26

Super-elevation of rail, 230
Supervision of tunnel-work, 176
Swing-bridges, 83, 87
Switches or points, 235
Syphon culverts, 79

Tamping-bar, 239
Terminal station, 253
Tests for steel rails, 194
Three-throw switches, 233
Thrust-girders for retaining walls, 161
Tie-bars, 224
Timber bridges, 95
Timbering of tunnels, 170
Timber-pile foundations, 114
Time for construction, 18

INDEX.

365

Tip-head, 67

Tip-waggon, 69

Tools for permanent way, 239

for tunnel-work, 172

Trailing-points, 20
Train-staff on single line, 342
Train-tickets, 343
Tramplates of east-iron, 184
Tramway rails, 199
Trap-points, 319
Travelling-crane, 296
Traversing bridge, 85
Trimming slopes, 72
Trough girders, 135
Tunnel faces, or entrance, 176

headings, 169

sections, 176

shafts, 167

Tunnels, 6, 10, 162

composed of cast-iron segments, 179

, drainage of, 166

through cities, 178

under rivers, 181

Turn-out, 233
Turntables, 287

U

Under-line arch bridges, 103, 129

Vacuum system of sinking, 119
Verandah on platform, 261
Viaduct parapets, 28
Viaducts of timber, 95
over rivers, 83

Viaducts over valleys, 91
to be shown on section, 10

W

Waggon turn-table, 292
Waiting-rooms, 251
Warehouse crane, 294
Water-column, 802
Water-jet piles, 116
Water-tables, 227
Water-tanks, 299
Wear of fish-plates, 205
Wear of steel rails, 193
Weeping-holes, 161, 174
Weights of locomotive engines, 304
Well foundations, 123
Wheel-base of engine bogie, 59
Wheel-guards on viaducts, 28
Widths of public-road bridges, 10
Winding engines, 185
Wind-pressure, 28
Wooden-centre wheels, 48
Wooden culverts, 76

screws, 223

tramway, 182

water-tanks, 301

Working plans and sections, 32
Wrought-iron column piers, 97

and steel sleepers, 217

piles, 116

rails, 186

water-tanks, 301

Zigzags, 35

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